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TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 



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Date Palm, Bearing Four Bunches of Fruit 



TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 



THE CLIMATE, SOILS, CULTURAL 
METHODS, CROPS, LIVE STOCK, 
COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE AND 
OPPORTUNITIES OF THE TROPICS 



' BY 
EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, A.M., Ph.D. 

STATES BELATIONB BEBVICE, U. 8; DEPABTMENT OF AQBICULTDBB 



^ 




ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK AND LONDON 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

1916 






COPTHIGHT, 1916, BT 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 






A-i'^^ 



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OCT 30l3i6 



Printed in the United States of America 



©CI, A 44 6 171 



t- 



TO 

MY PAEENTS 

ABRAM FRANK WILCOX 

AND 

SALLY MEAD WILCOX 



PREFACE 

The importance of tropical agriculture in the commerce 
of the world is increasing daily. Sugar, coconuts, coffee, 
tea, cacao, bananas, fibers, rubbers, gums, spices, tans, oils, 
tropical woods, silk, ostrich feathers, and the hundreds of 
other tropical products hold a large place in international 
trade. The United States imports tropical products to the 
value of more than $600,000,000 annually, $350,000,000 in 
sugar, coffee, and silk. Year by year new tropical products, 
previously unknown to most of us, are added to the list of 
the world's economic products. Year by year more tropical 
products pass from the class of luxuries to the necessities. 

The English, French, Dutch, Belgians, and Italians are 
putting forth earnest efforts in the development of their 
tropical colonies, and the Latin Americans in the develop- 
ment of their own countries. Their great activity in scien- 
tific research and in the study of labor, transportation, mar- 
keting, and general economic conditions is sufficient evidence 
of their keen interest in the future of the Tropics. Experi- 
ment stations and departments of agriculture are being 
established everywhere. Studies of the technical utilization 
of tropical products are under way. Commercial possibilities 
are receiving expert attention. 

We, as a nation, have reason to be more interested in these 
matters. The "splendid isolation" of our forefathers is a 
thing of the past. We are a part of the world. Tropical 
products are brought to every household. The humblest 
table bears food products from Brazil, Cuba, India, Java, 
Molucca Islands, Tahiti, Mauritius, Gold Coast, Jamaica, 
Hawaii, Porto Rico, and other parts of the Tropics. We are 



viii PREFACE 

the largest users of tropical products among the nations of 
the earth. 

The Philippines, American Samoa, Guam, Hawaii, the 
Canal Zone, and Porto Rico belong to the United States. 
The Philippines with their abaca, copra, tobacco, and kapok ; 
Hawaii with its sugar, pineapples, coffee, and sisal; and 
Porto Rico with its sugar, coffee, tobacco, citrus fruit, and 
pineapples are important elements in the tropical world. 

Much greater development, especially in the line of diver- 
sification of industries, is possible in all our tropical posses- 
sions. Our business men are doing their part. They are 
in the vanguard of tropical progress with their technical in- 
vestigations and their studies of commercial conditions in 
the Tropics. But there is a lack of information on tropical 
agriculture among the general public. In fact, a woeful 
ignorance prevails as to the essential nature and features of 
tropical problems. I have been asked by otherwise intelli- 
gent persons if Spanish is the prevaiHng language in Hono- 
lulu, if pineapples grow on trees, and other equally signifi- 
cant questions. How can the serious business of properly 
developing our own part of the Tropics be accomplished 
without the intelligent interest of the general public? 

The literature of tropical agriculture would in itself make 
a library of respectable size. In the appendix to this volume 
I have given some hints as to the extent of this literature. 
The chief contributors to this field of knowledge are English, 
French, Dutch, Italians, Belgians, Germans, and Latin 
Americans. Tropical agriculture has received only scant 
attention from our writers. A few journals devoted to tea, 
coffee, spice, fibers, and oils, occasional bulletins from the 
U. S, Department of Agriculture, publications of the Ha- 
waii, Porto Rico, and Guam Experiment Stations, and of 
the Philippine Bureau of Agriculture, a volume on the 
banana trade and bulletins from the Florida and California 
experiment stations, constitute the most of our contribution 



PREFACE ix 

to the literature of tropical agriculture. We have produced 
many handbooks and cyclopedias of horticulture, agriculture 
and live stock, but these books treat of tropical agriculture, 
if at all, nnly so far as developments in Florida and Cali- 
fornia are concerned. No American writer has heretofore 
presented a general account of tropical agriculture. 

The present volume is written from the standpoint of the 
general reader, business man and agricultural student. I 
have attempted to present in a brief form what everybody 
ought to know about the Tropics. Such details regarding 
the cultivation of crops as are of interest only to the actual 
planter in the Tropics have been omitted. Particular atten- 
tion has been given to the nature, source, and commercial 
importance of tropical products. Not all economic plants of 
the Tropics have been included, for thousands of these 
plants are known and of interest only in a restricted locality. 
The volume contains an account of about 350 tropical prod- 
ucts of peculiar interest and commercial importance. I have 
also attempted to present an intelligible picture of animal 
industry in the Tropics as well as of climate, soils, and 
economic conditions. 

This is a book on tropical agriculture in the commercial 
sense, the production of things to eat, wear, and use in tecl^- 
nical industries. Without extending its limits too greatly no 
room was found for a discussion of the tropical diseases of 
live stock or of insect pests and fungous diseases. With 
some regret, too, I have found it necessary to omit the sub- 
ject of ornamentals — the endless list of vines, shrubs, and 
trees which paint the tropical landscape with their brilliant 
flowers. 

The literature of tropical agriculture abounds in exagger- 
ations. One reads of yields of two pounds of coir fiber per 
coconut, of 240,0 "o pounds of bananas per acre, along with 
similar astonishing statements. If a New York farmer 
should read that yields of 1,800 bushels of potatoes per acre 



X PREFACE 

had been obtained in Oklahoma he would question the state- 
ment at once even if he had never been in Oklahoma. But 
if the same farmer should read that 6,000 avocados were 
borne on a single tree, or that a vanilla plantation yielded 
15 tons of vanilla beans per acre, he might be bowled over 
by the news, but he would probably have no basis in experi- 
ence or knowledge for denying the statement. I have tried 
to present the important facts of tropical agriculture with- 
out the glamor of romance, but I hope the account will be 
none the less interesting to the general reader. 

No one who has long lived in the Tropics can ever forget, 
and few can resist, the call to return where snows and the 
other discomforts of northern winters are mere memories of 
less favored climates. The multitude of curious fruits, the 
brilliant butterflies, the gorgeous birds, the flowering trees, 
the endless summer, the coral islands, the jungles, the 
strange peoples and their still stranger customs — all these 
are woven into the life and literature of the Tropics. In 
fact, we can almost forgive the early writers on the Tropics 
for their exaggerations. But sufficient romance still lingers 
about the picture of the Tropics even when viewed in the 
full light of day. 

The personal contact of the writer with the subject matter 
of this volume was gained during a residence of more than 
six years in Hawaii in charge of the Hawaii Agricultural 
Experiment Station and by visits to California, Florida, and 
Cuba. Hawaii is sometimes called the crossroads of the 
Pacific. Every ship that calls at Honolulu carries one or 
more agricultural experts. They come from Formosa, the 
Philippines, Java, Malaya, Ceylon, India, Fiji, Australia, 
Mauritius, Egypt, the Congo, the West Indias, Mexico, and 
elsewhere. Opportunity was thus had to discuss the prog- 
ress of agriculture with men from all parts of the tropical 
world. 

The purpose of this book is to stimulate an interest in 



PREFACE xi 

tropical agriculture. We, as a nation, need to know more 
of the Tropics, of the opportunities they offer and of their 
great commercial importance. We need to know more of 
the stupendous racial and economic problems involved in 
the further development of tropical agriculture. We need 
especially to know more of our Latin American neighbors. 
If this book serves to some degree in focusing the earnest 
attention of the American reader upon the wonderful possi- 
bilities of the Tropics, it will have fulfilled its purpose. 

During the preparation of the volume I received many 
helpful suggestions from Dr. E. W. Allen, Dr. W. H. 
Evans, and Mr. E. J. Glasson, all of the Office of Experi- 
ment Stations. The proofs were read by Mrs. Mabel R. 
Wilcox. In the selection of illustrations most courteous 
assistance was received from Mr, David Fairchild, in charge 
of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture, who has perhaps done more than any other 
man in the United States in stimulating a general interest 
in tropical agricultural products. 

E. V. Wilcox. 

Washington, D. C. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGB 

I. Tropical Climate and Its Effects on Man, Farm Ani- 

mals AND Crops ....... i 

Temperature. Trade winds. Monsoons. Thunder- 
storms. Rainfall. Insular climates. Effect of forests 
on climate. Effect of tropical climate on plants, ani- 
mals and man. Hygiene in the Tropics. 

II. Tropical Soils . . . .. . .. . . i6 

Chemical changes. Leaching. Iron content. Potash 
content of lava. Laterite soils. Manganiferous soils. 
Titaniferous soils. Coral sand soils. Drainage. Dyna- 
miting soils. Rotations. Cover crops. Cultivation. 

III. Agricultural Methods Peculiar to the Tropics > 24 
Shade. Windbreaks. Weed eradication. Insects. 
Plant diseases. 

IV. Importance of Tropical Products in Commerce . 29 
Technical products. Fruits. Tropical fruits on northern 
markets. Statistics of tropical imports. Variety and 
importance of tropical products. 

V. Economic and Social Conditions and Opportunities 

in the Tropics 35 

Early exploitation. Corporations. Homesteads. Inter- 
marriage and race mixture. Opportunities for farmers 
and trained professional men. Profits in tropical agri- 
culture. Need of a fixed policy of tropical development. 

VI. Sugar Cane . 43 

World trade. Varieties. Seedlings. Selection. Varia- 
tion in sucrose and purity of juice. Rattoons. Water 
Requirements. Fertilizers. Cultivation. Planting 



siv CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

methods. Harvesting and yields. Mill methods. Mo- 
lasses. Sugar producing countries. Sugar production 
in India. 

VIL Coconuts 5^ 

Description. Importance. Products. Area. Yield. 
Varieties. Planting. Handling the crop. Copra. Co- 
conut oil. Desiccated coconut. Coir. Jaggery. Coco- 
nuts in the Philippines and Cuba. 

VIII. Beverages 64 

Coffee. Tea. Cacao. Mate. Kola nuts. Guana. 

IX. Fruits and Nuts 82 

Bananas. Pineapples. Citrus fruits. Olive. Date. 
Fig. Avocado. Mango. Papaya. Guava. Feijoa. 
Pomegranate. Tamarind. Litchi. Roselle. Mangos- 
teen. Custard apples. Loquat. Malay apples. Surinam 
cherry. Rose apple. Cape gooseberry. Passion fruit. 
Mammee apple. Wampi. Amatungula. Star apples. 
Durian. Ceriman. Jujube. Sapodilla. Carambola. 
Bael fruit. Ohelo berry. Japanese persimmon. Wi 
apple. Otaheite apple. Almond. Brazil nut. Pili nut. 
Cashew nut. Pistachio nut. Queensland nut. 

X. Starchy Foods 142 

Rice. Millets. Quinoa. Sago. Cassava. Arrowroot. 
Sweet potatoes. Yams. Queensland arrowroot. Udo. 
Dasheens. Taros. Yantias. Taniers. Breadfruit. 
Chayote. Lotus. Seaweed. Ti. 

XL Tobacco 160 

Producing countries. Early use. Cultural methods. 
Curing. Fermentation. Classification of grades and 
sorts. 

XII. Fiber Plants . . ....... 166 

Cotton. Jute. Sisal. Manila hemp. Banana fiber. 
Ramie. Kapok, Milkweeds. New Zealand flax. Bow- 
string hemp. Hibiscus fibers. Piassava fiber. Sunn 



CONTENTS XV 

CHAPTEB PAQK 

hemp. Pineapple fiber. Olona. Devil's cotton. Raffia. 
Esparto grass. Papyrus. Plants used for paper, hats, 
utensils, and other purposes. 

XIII. Rubbers and Gums . . . . . . 193 

Rubber. Gutta-percha. Balata. Jelutong. Chicle. 
Camphor. Other gums and resins. 

XIV. Drugs . . . . . . . . . 214 

Cinchona. Cocaine. Opium. Nux vomica. Cubebs. 
Ipecacuanha. Indian hemp. Copaiba. Peru balsam. 
Tolu balsam. Aloes. Calabar bean. Catechu. Jalap. 
Sarsaparilla. Squill. Senna. Awa. Areca nut. Quas- 
sia. Strophanthus. Jaborandi. Croton oil. 

XV. Tans and Dyes . . . . . . . 228 

Gambier. Mangrove. Wattle bark. Quebracho. Divi- 
divi. Logwood, Gamboge. Fustic wood. Brazilwood. 
Indigo. Henna. Madder. Annatto. Safflower. Saf- 
fron. 

XVI. Spices and Flavorings . . . . . . 239 

Allspice. Cardamoms. Cassia bark. Cinnamon. Chil- 

ies. Coriander. Caper. Curry powder. Cummin. 
Pepper. Long pepper. Grains of Paradise. Cloves. 
Ginger. Nutmeg. Turmeric. Vanilla. 

XVII. Perfumes 255 

Ylang-ylang. Frankincense. Tonka bean. Cassie. 
Myrrh. Benzoin. Oil of neroli. Frangipani. Berga- 
mot. Champaca oil. Geranium oil. Vetiver. Otto of 
rose. 

XVin. Oils 263 

Drying oils. Semi-drying oils. Non-drying oils. Vege- 
table fats. Essential oils, 

XIX. Timbers and Woods 290 

Mixed tropical forests. Soft woods. Dipterocarpous 
trees (sal tree, eng tree). Leguminous trees (catechu, 



xvi CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB PAGE 

albizzia, golden shower, rosewood, Andaman redwood). 
Ebony. Coramandel wood. Lignum vitae. Mahogany. 
Kauri pine. Karri. Sandalwood. Koa. Satinwood. 
West Indian cedar. Ohia. Teak. Corkwood. Cork. 
Vegetable ivory. 

XX. Legumes and Other Forage Plants . . . 301 

Legumes. Grasses in the Tropics. Miscellaneous for- 
age plants. 

XXI. Live Stock and Animal Products in the Tropics 322 

Beef cattle. Zebu, Bos indicus. Buffalo, Bos bubalus. 
Horses and mules. Swine. Sheep. Goats. Camel. 
Llama and alpaca. Elephant. Poultry. Ostriches. 
Silk. Bees. Shellac. Cochineal. 

Appendix . . . . . . . ... 349 

Reference books relating to tropical agriculture. Peri- 
odicals relating to tropical agriculture. 

Index 361 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Date palm, bearing four bunches of fruit 



Frontispiece 



FACING 
PAGE 



Crown of coconut tree with nuts in various stages of growth 

Coffee tree in bloom in Costa Rica . 

Tea hedges in Yendo, Japan .... 

Field of smooth cayenne pineapples in Hawaii 

Trunk of cacao tree bearing ripe pods 

Papoulu banana, a Hawaiian variety to be eaten baked 

Young avocado tree in fruit, Trapp variety 

Sandersha mango tree in bearing 

Papaya tree in Miami, Florida 

Feijoa twigs and fruit 

Tamarind pods and leaves 

Fruiting branch of litchi 

Roselle; the thick calyx is the edible part . 

Cherimoyer, one of the custard apples . 

Olivier variety of loquat .... 

Rose apple, flowers and fruit .... 

Portion of passion vine with fruit . 

Amatungula or Natal plum, fruit and flower 

Sapodilla from Florida 

Dasheen Tuber, Trinidad variety . 
Breadfruit tree in full bearing, Honolulu 
Chayote, fruit and portion of stem . 



58 

66 

70 

70 

74 

84 

92 

92 

100 

108 

108 

116 

122 

122 

128 

134 

134 

140 

140 

144 

150 

154 



xvii 



xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING 
PAGE 

Lotus pond in Chinanfu, China 158 

Sisal plants in the Bahamas 170 

Kapok tree with pods in Nassau 170 

Drying sisal fiber in Nassau 182 

Castilloa rubber trees showing method of tapping . . 200 

Betel nut palm in Siam 224 

Mangrove jungle in Florida 224 

Chinawood oil nut 264 

Harvesting olives in Tebourba, Tunis 288 

Bamboo plantation in Louisiana ...... 288 



TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 



TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER I 

TROPICAL CLIMATE AND ITS EFFECTS ON MAN, FARM 
ANIMALS AND CROPS 

Informal observations concerning the weather often serve 
as a prelude or introduction to discussions of serious moment 
concerning affairs of religion, science, or business. It is per- 
haps well to begin the present volume with a brief account 
of tropical climate. Questions concerning the nature and 
effects of the tropical climate are among the first which are 
asked by those who are planning to visit the Tropics for the 
first time. Among persons who have never lived in tropical 
countries, a vast deal of incorrect notions exists as to the 
nature of the climate in these countries. A part of the miscon- 
ception regarding weather conditions in the Tropics is perhaps 
due to the unfortunate use of the term "temperate climates" 
for the intermediate zones north and south of the Equator. 
If one has regard to the real meaning of the word temperate, 
this word should be applied to tropical climates rather than to 
the climates commonly called temperate, for it is in the temper- 
ate zones that the greatest extremes of weather conditions, 
particularly temperature, occur. In the temperate zones, for 
example, are recorded temperatures ranging from 40° or 50° 
below zero to 110° or 120° F. This would give a total annual 
range of temperature of 150° to 170°. In the Tropics, on the 
other hand, the temperature seldom rises above 90° and rarely 
sinks below 75° at sea level. This is truly a temperate climate 
since it is devoid of both extremes and shows a range of only 
15° of temperature. 



g TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

As is well known, the Tropics are included within a zone 
about the center of the earth extending 23^^° north and south 
of the Equator. The northern and southern boundaries of the 
' Tropics coincide nearly with the isotherm 68° F. for the cold- 
est month of the year. If, therefore, the Tropics are defined 
not as a geographical zone 47° wide, but as the area bounded 
by the isotherm just mentioned, it will be found that this area 
is only about 30° wide at the west coast of Africa and of 
America instead of the normal 47°. As is already indicated, it 
is in the subtropics or so-called temperate climates that the 
highest temperatures and greatest range of temperature are 
recorded. For example, temperatures of 110° to 120° F. during 
the summer months are not of rare occurrence in certain parts 
of the mainland of the United States. In Jacobabad, India, 
a temperature of 127° F. has been recorded. This locality 
is outside of the tropical zone. Moreover, the high tempera- 
tures which occur in summer in mainland cities like Washing- 
ton, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Chicago, are frequently accom- 
panied with a high relative humidity making the weather com- 
bination as a whole much more trying and difficult to endure 
than the times of highest temperature in strictly tropical cli- 
mates. Temperatures in the Tropics are affected by elevation 
in the same manner as in temperate climates. Everywhere the 
mean temperature falls about 4° for every 1,000 feet of eleva- 
tion. At the Equator the elevation at which frost occurs is 
about 18,000 feet. On the Island of Hawaii at an altitude of 
20° north the frost elevation is about 4,500 feet. An idea 
of the range of temperature in certain well known tropical 
cities may be gathered from the following data: In Cairo, 
Egypt, the mean winter temperature is 56° and the mean sum- 
mer temperature 83° F. Bogota, Colombia, lies at consider- 
able elevation and possesses the advantage of perhaps the most 
remarkably uniform temperature of any city in the world. Its 
average daily temperature is 60° F. the year round. In 
.Colombo a rather uniform temperature alternation occurs, giv- 



TROPICAL CLIMATE 3 

ing a daily range of only about ii°. At this city the night 
temperature is about 75° and the day temperature about 86°. 
In Honolulu, the lowest temperature recorded in 30 years is 
$2° and the highest 89° F., giving a total range of 37° F. 

With the very slight range of temperature in tropical coun- 
tries, it is obvious that no sudden changes of temperature can 
possibly occur. There is, therefore, ordinarily no occasion for 
any changes in the nature or weight of clothing from one sea- 
son to another. So far as the extremes of temperature and 
the range of temperature and consequent necessary adjust- 
ments of the body are concerned, the Tropics possess a decided 
advantage over all temperate and less favored climates. 

The crops which are characteristic of the Tropics extend 
for considerable distances outside of the strict boundaries of 
the tropical zone. It is necessary, therefore, in a discussion of 
tropical agriculture to include subtropical countries in order 
not to be forced to draw too arbitrary boundaries. In the mat- 
ter of tropical climate an important factor in further soften- 
ing and ameliorating the tropical heat is found in the trade 
winds. These winds rise about 30° north and south of the 
Equator and blow toward the Equator with a slight westerly 
deflection as far as the doldrum belt. North of the Equator, 
therefore, the trade wind is a northeast wind, while south of 
the Equator it is a southeast wind. The "trades" are uni- 
versally gentle winds and in most of the countries within the 
trade-wind belt, especially in islands, the trade winds blow 
practically continuously night and day for from 250 to 280 
days of the year. These gentle winds are dry and cooling. 
When the velocity of the trade wind is relatively high the evap- 
oration caused by the "trades" is very great. They therefore 
not only serve to cool the body, but also to lower the tempera- 
ture of plants by transpiration. 

At irregular intervals the trade winds are interrupted by 
winds variously known as reverse trades, monsoons, kona 
winds, etc. The southeast trades become southwest monsoons 



4 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

in southern India about the middle of June when the rainy- 
season begins. This change from southeast to southwest wind 
occurs every year on almost the same day of the year so that 
it is possible to know in advance almost the precise day on 
which the rainy season will begin. In Hawaii the regular 
trade-wind season extends ordinarily from April to October. 
During this time there is, for the most part, little interruption 
of the trade wind. During the winter season and less fre- 
quently during the summer the trade wind may be interrupted 
by periods of from one to seven or more days, during which 
there is either no definite wind or more frequently a southerly 
or southwesterly wind. This is known in Hawaii as the kona 
wind and invariably is accompanied by a period of high rela- 
tive humidity and consequent discomfort. The natives in 
Hiawaii call the kona wind the sick wind on account of the 
lassitude and depression which are felt while it prevails. It 
seems curious that on a group of islands like Hawaii from 
which the nearest land is distant more than 2,000 miles, a 
wind from one direction should be dry, while from another 
direction it is decidedly moist. 

The occurrence of thunderstorms is a matter which varies 
greatly in different parts of the Tropics and this variation is 
thus far without any very satisfactory explanation. For ex- 
ample, in Cuba rather furious thunderstorms occur during the 
summer season, whereas in Hawaii a thunderstorm is a rare 
event and occurs only during a period of kona wind and never 
during the prevalence of trade winds. 

While the Tropics are temperate in the matter of tempera- 
ture, they show enormous variation in rainfall in different 
countries and in different localities in these countries. The 
range of variation in the matter of rainfall runs from a condi- 
tion of almost absolute desert to an average rainfall of 450 
inches per year. Some notion of the range of rainfall in well 
known localities of the Tropics and subtropics may be gained 
from the following data: The average annual rainfall for 



TROPICAL CLIMATE 5 

Singapore is 94 inches, for Bangkok 6"] inches, for Formosa 43 
inches, for Manila 75 inches, for Vera Cruz 68 inches, for 
Habana 52 inches, for Honolulu 28 inches, for Burma 99 
inches, and for Bengal 188 inches. The Kamerun district has 
a rainfall of about 350 inches a year. Cherrapongee in Assam 
has an average annual rainfall of 458 inches and in one year 
the annual precipitation reached the enormous total of 905 
inches. 

Within the trade-wind belt on small islands like those which 
constitute the Hawaiian group, the climate of the lee and 
windward side of the islands is decidedly different. The 
windward side receives a much heavier precipitation and is, on 
the whole, cooler than the lee side. The variation in rainfall 
on these small islands is a strictly local matter and the most 
astonishing differences in vegetation in localities separated only 
a few miles occur as the result of this extreme variation in 
rainfall. For example, at one of the substations of the U, S. 
Experiment Station on the Island of Hawaii, a rainfall of 360 
inches was recorded for one year, while at a point 28 miles 
away the annual rainfall for the same year was 6 inches. It 
is possible, therefore, in the space of an hour's ride to pass 
from a desert covered with cacti and other drought-resistant 
plants into a dense tropical jungle reeking with moisture. 

In all tropical countries the clearing of forests makes the 
climate decidedly drier and warmer. The effects of the 
removal of forests in tropical countries are in various ways far 
more conspicuous than in northern climates. Stock grazing 
in forests on account of the destruction of undergrowth and 
young trees may change a given tract of country from a wet 
jungle to an almost desert condition. This change may be 
followed by more disastrous wind erosion than is perhaps ever 
witnessed in northern climates. The islands of Kahoolawe 
and Lanai, particularly the former, perhaps illustrate the fear- 
ful effects of wind erosion to the best advantage. These 
islands were formerly well covered with native forest growth. 



6 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

With the extension of stock grazing, the forest trees were 
destroyed, especially on the upper elevations, and the forest 
destruction was soon followed by the loss of moisture from 
the soil due to the increased evaporation under the exposure 
to the constant trade winds. The soils of these islands are 
fine clay in mechanical texture and are readily carried away 
as dust in the wind. During a period of moderately strong 
trade winds a continuous dust cloud from the Island of Kahoo- 
lawe is visible for 50 to 75 miles. Parts of the island have 
been eroded by the wind to a depth of over 200 feet since the 
destruction of the forest growth on the higher elevations. 
Similar results from wind erosion are to be seen on Lanai, 
but the damage has not progressed so far as on Kahoolawe. 
On Lanai there are regions where the soil has been carried 
away to a depth of 50 feet, in some cases leaving columns with 
a small shrub or a bit of grass or native plants which escaped 
destruction and have remained in their original position, thus 
holding the soil in place and checking the action of the wind 
while all of the adjacent soil is blown away. A few of these 
isolated columns of soil standing at a height of 30 to 50 feet 
give an extremely bizarre aspect to the landscape. 

While the old contention as to the effect of forests upon the 
rainfall of a given locality has been unfortunately obscured 
and unnecessarily complicated by exaggerations on both sides 
of the argument, it is certain that the presence of a forest 
covering on the tops of the mountains of islands lying within 
the trade-wind belt actually increases the rainfall and is of 
great benefit in regulating the distribution and conservation of 
the water of these islands. It should be remembered that rain 
storms on islands in the trade-wind belt are of a decidedly 
different nature from those which occur on continental areas, 
particularly in northern climates. As a rule, precipitation dur- 
ing the prevalence of the trade wind occurs not as a result of 
the formation of a definite storm area, but as a result of a cool- 
ing and compression of air due to its impinging upon the 



TROPICAL CLIMATE 7 

mountains of small islands and being forced to rise in order 
to pass over the mountains. The water is thus in a sense 
squeezed out of the atmosphere in passing over the high points 
of islands lying in the trade winds. It may thus often occur 
that during the prevalence of clear weather on the windward 
side of an island, an almost constant precipitation of rain oc- 
curs high up on the mountain side and this rain is frequently 
blown over upon the lee shoulder of the mountains, sometimes 
reaching almost to the sea on the lee side of the island. Such 
rains are brought about merely by the presence of the moun- 
tains and occur in an area in which no storm conditions in the 
ordinary sense exist. The higher the mountain the heavier 
the rainfall caused by its presence. In the case of mountains 
of no more than 4,000 or 5,000 feet elevation, the presence 
of a forest growth upon the upper ridges exercises a great 
influence in increasing precipitation. A part of the explana- 
tion of this fact is to be found in the radiation of heat from 
forests and the consequent cooling of the trees and increase of 
precipitation as a result. 

At any time of the day or night, therefore, at least during 
the prevalence of the trade-wind season, the atmosphere may 
be robbed of a portion of its moisture by coming in contact 
with the mountains and being forced to rise to a height of 
5,000 feet or more before passing on in the general course of 
the trade wind. This peculiar cause of rain storms brings 
about the frequent occurrence of light showers in a perfectly 
clear sky, the rain being precipitated from the atmosphere at 
the tops of the mountains and being blown down over the lee 
side of the island by the trade winds. This condition is often 
referred to by the natives as liquid sunshine and gives rise to 
the almost daily occurrence of brilliant rainbows and the fre- 
quent occurrence of lunar rainbows. 

The effect of tropical climate upon plants is manifested in 
various ways. Some plants which are annuals in cold climates 
become perennials in the Tropics. Similarly, some plants which 



8 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

remain strictly herbs in cold climates become shrubs or small 
trees in the Tropics. The Lantana, which is cultivated as a 
more or less delicate greenhouse plant in cold climates, be- 
comes a shrub varying in height from 4 to 15 feet and shows 
an aggressiveness which makes it one of the very worst of 
the weed pests. Cotton, which is cultivated strictly as an 
annual in the cotton belt of the mainland, grows as a perennial 
in the Tropics and will live and bear for 25 to 40 years, 
although the best yields are obtained by cutting it back after 
each crop and treating it practically as an annual. The pigeon 
pea, which is a useful leguminous cover crop will, if left to itself, 
become practically a small tree attaining a diameter of eight 
inches or more. The formation of annual rings in trees is, as 
is well known, due to the difference in rapidity of growth dur- 
ing the height of the growing season and the fall season just 
before growth ceases. Since no such seasons prevail in the 
Tropics there are no definite annual rings in forest trees. 

Most trees in the Tropics are evergreen, shedding their 
leaves the year round a few at a time. A few trees, however, 
shed their leaves all at one time. The Ceara rubber tree and 
kapok are conspicuous examples of this sort. Notwithstand- 
ing the absence of temperature seasons in the Tropics, plants 
nevertheless have seasons of growth and periods of rest. 
There are, therefore, best times to plant in the Tropics as in 
cold climates. The reason for recommending particular sea- 
sons for planting is usually based on the prospects of rain- 
fall and relatively cool weather. A number of plants thrive 
best in their early stages if planted at the beginning of the 
winter season. This is perhaps nearly always true for Irish 
potatoes and corn, which in Hawaii, at any rate, make a much 
better growth if planted in November or December than if 
planted in April. Even this recommendation, however, must 
be limited strictly to sea level, for at high elevations, particu- 
larly above 4,000 feet, the best season for planting these crops 
is in March or April. Many tropical plants, as is well known, 



TROPICAL CLIMATE 9 

bear the year round without any evidence of a particular sea- 
son of activity. Bananas and papayas are conspicuous ex- 
amples of this kind. From a plantation of either bananas or 
papayas fruit can be picked during any month of the year. In 
fact, v^^ith papayas there are ripe fruit on the tree every day 
the year round. Mangoes and avocados show a tendency to 
flower and produce their fruit within a relatively restricted 
season. By the use of early varieties, however, it is possible 
to extend the season of these fruits over a period of six months 
or more. 

Most tropical plants can be acclimated in subtropical coun- 
tries. In southern Florida, for example, nearly all of the well 
known tropical plants, with the exception of breadfruit, cacao, 
and rubber can be grown with more or less success. Some, 
however, cannot be acclimated even in the subtropics. This 
is conspicuously true of such plants as cacao, which will thrive 
only in the true Tropics near sea level, protected from the 
wind, and favored with an abundance of rainfall. Conversely, 
many plants from northern climates cannot be successfully ac- 
climated in the Tropics. This is true to some extent of a large 
percentage of the well known trees of temperate climates. 
The oak, for example, does not appear to be able to adjust 
itself to tropical conditions. It remains ever green, shedding a 
few leaves occasionally, but showing an extremely poor 
growth. There are specimens in Hawaii 20 to 25 years old 
not higher than four or five feet. Apples and peaches behave 
in a peculiar manner in the Tropics. These fruits are not 
well adapted to tropical conditions and do not yield satisfactory 
results except at higher altitudes. Near sea level the peach 
tree may be seen at almost any time of the year with buds, 
flowers, young peaches of all sizes, and ripe peaches at the 
same time. There seems to be no tendency to establish a defi- 
nite period of fruiting under tropical conditions. Similarly 
with apples, one branch or one side of the tree may bear at 
one season and another branch at another season, and a given 



10 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

branch may show flowers and green and ripe apples at the 
same time. 

The effect of temperature, so far at least as it is felt by 
plants and animals, seems to be a relative matter. Plants suf- 
fer in the Tropics at times from the low temperatures which 
prevail, although these temperatures may not be below 65° F. 
The effect of temperature upon plants appears to be almost 
entirely a matter of adaptation on the part of the plants. On 
the high plateaus in the Rocky Mountains of the mainland one 
may see certain spring flowers which have actually forced 
their way through an inch or more of ice to bloom above the 
surface of the ice and snow. These plants are frozen as stiff 
as icicles every night and yet are not affected by such tem- 
perature conditions. In tropical conditions, on the other hand, 
a temperature of 65° F, at night, especially if accompanied 
with a rather high wind, may injuriously check the growth of 
many plants and may even turn the leaves of cotton brown as 
if from the effects of frost. Similarly with man and animals, 
the lowest temperatures which occur in the Tropics seem to 
be felt as cold, and a certain amount of discomfort is experi- 
enced by both man and animals when the temperature descends 
as low as 65° F. 

In tropical countries nearly all animals can find food for 
themselves the year round, and if they escape from domestica- 
tion on farms they may run wild. We have therefore in nearly 
all tropical countries wild cattle, horses, asses, sheep, goats, 
chickens, turkeys, pea fowl, dogs, cats, etc. In some of the 
rough mountain districts of Hawaii wild goats which are de- 
scended from goats escaped from domestication on the farms 
have become a veritable scourge requiring organized expedi- 
tions of hunters for their destruction. Similarly, pigs, cattle, 
and sheep after escaping from restraint have multiplied rapidly 
and occupied the rougher mountain regions, destroying much 
of the grazing which is required for the more improved strains 
of domestic animals. The common breeds of poultry, after 



TROPICAL CLIMATE 11 

escaping from domestication and breeding for two or three 
generations in the mountains, develop powers of flight equal 
to those of the pheasant, and while retaining the color of the 
domestic strain, gain somewhat in elegance and trimness of 
form. On the Island of Lanai, turkeys may be found in all 
stages of domestication and wildness, ranging from those 
which may be approached and petted near a ranch house to 
those which fly on the approach of man as vigorously as do 
the wild turkeys of the Appalachian Mountains. 

In general, domestic animals in the Tropics reach a smaller 
size and produce less milk than in northern climates. This 
statement, of course, refers only to the improved breeds of 
domestic animals developed in northern climates and shipped 
into tropical countries. It is impossible, for example, to bring 
Hereford or Shorthorn steers in tropical countries up to the 
standard weight for northern climates. Similarly, with the 
best strains of Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, or other dairy cows, 
it is impossible to secure a heavy milk yield even with the best 
and most expensive rations. It is a rather rare accomplish- 
ment for Jersey or even Holstein cows in the Tropics to pro- 
duce 5,000 pounds of milk in a year, and the average yield is 
far below that, probably not more than 2,500 pounds. The 
tendency to produce less milk and to reach maturity at a 
smaller size than in the northern climate may be considered 
as the result of an unexplained influence of the tropical climate. 

The weather problem, however, which is uppermost in the 
mind of the tourist and intending settler in the Tropics, is 
concerned with the effect of tropical climate upon man and 
with especial precautions which he may need to take in order 
to live comfortably and in health. In former days travelers 
were wont to regale us with tales of the frightful ravages of 
the tropical diseases. Many of these diseases were, and still 
are, in some localities of serious consequence. So much atten- 
tion was, and still is, paid to them that the reading public be- 
came quite thoroughly familiar with the general aspects of the 



12 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

problem of tropical hygiene. As a result of the great amount 
of medical and popular attention which has been given to 
these diseases, the average reader who has not been in the 
Tropics probably has the fixed notion that the chief dangers 
likely to be met in the Tropics are the specific tropical and 
Oriental diseases, such as typhus fever, yellow fever, amebic 
dysentery, Asiatic cholera, plague, leprosy, etc. This, how- 
ever, would be a highly erroneous conception regarding many 
districts and cities of tropical countries. On account of the 
universal fear of tropical diseases felt by the white settlers of 
tropical countries, an unusual effort has been put forth in 
nearly all parts of the Tropics to bring about sanitary condi- 
tions with reference primarily to the specific diseases which 
inspire an almost universal terror of the Tropics. 

The results of this unusual medical and sanitary campaign 
have been surprisingly effective, producing, in the case of sev- 
eral tropical cities, sanitary conditions superior to those of 
northern cities. All the world knows how Hiabana and 
Panama were freed from yellow fever. The city of Habana 
now has a lower death rate than has any city on the mainland 
of the United States. Likewise in Honolulu, there is no 
reason for fearing tropical diseases. The most serious dis- 
eases in Honolulu are precisely the same as those which 
prevail throughout the United States, namely, pneumonia, tu- 
berculosis, and typhoid fever. Cases of leprosy, plague, and 
Asiatic cholera are of such rare occurrence as to be negligible 
in reaching a conclusion as to whether or not to visit Honolulu. 
The clean-up campaigns which have been carried on in many 
tropical cities have reduced the fly and mosquito nuisances to 
a minimum. In so far as mosquitoes, flies, cockroaches, rats, 
and the other annoying and disgusting pests of cities are con- 
cerned, Habana, for example, is superior to any city of the 
United States. An incidental result of the application of sani- 
tary methods for the control of tropical diseases is also seen 
in lowering the number of cases of other diseases. 



TROPICAL CLIMATE 13 

In tropical countries, the nights are almost universally cool 
and comfortable. The range of temperature, as already stated, 
is never great, the total annual range rarely being greater than 
30°. Moreover, there are no extremes of temperature to be 
endured. It is possible in all tropical countries to live prac- 
tically out-of-doors, at least with doors and windows con- 
stantly open. The question of fresh air and ventilation is, 
therefore, solved automatically. The same weight of clothes 
can be worn the year round, thus avoiding the necessity for 
the bodily adjustments rendered inevitable by the rigors of the 
northern climates. 

Notwithstanding the fact that many of the tropical cities 
have been rendered even more sanitary from the viewpoint of 
specific diseases than are northern cities, and notwithstanding 
the fact that tropical cities possess almost none of the ordi- 
nary discomforts of climatic conditions and changes, it still 
remains doubtful whether the Tropics are well adapted for the 
permanent residence of the white man. It has not been ade- 
quately explained, and perhaps may never be fully explained, 
why the delightfully uniform and comfortable climate of the 
Tropics lowers the vitality and vigor of a considerable per- 
centage of the white men who go to live in the Tropics. While 
it may not be possible to explain this, it is nevertheless a fact. 
Some persons are affected by a general lassitude and depres- 
sion within a few days after landing in a tropical city, others 
are not affected at all, or only after a long residence without 
any trips in the meantime to colder climates. There is no 
way of predicting who will be injuriously affected and who 
not by going to the Tropics. The depressing influence of cli- 
mate may be shown most strongly in a vigorous, healthy in- 
dividual and may not be manifestec it all in invalids or 
weakly persons who go to the Tropics for a visit or for per- 
manent residence. 

It is a common and apparently well founded belief that 
most white races of the Tropics should pay a visit to some 



14 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

cold climate at intervals not greater than once in three years. 
In most instances, women probably feel the depressing influ* 
ence of tropical climates more keenly than men. This fact 
also is still without any satisfactory explanation. 

One may venture the suggestion that a part explanation of 
the lowering of vitality experienced by white persons after a 
long residence in the Tropics is found in lack of exercise. One 
feels so completely comfortable at all times in tropical cli- 
mates that there appears to be no immediate necessity for 
exercise or exertion. It may not occur to the ordinary indi- 
vidual for some time that he is taking less exercise than was 
his custom in colder climates. It is, however, a matter of 
common observation that no one can remain well in tropical 
countries without regular exercise or physical work. The 
assertion may therefore reasonably be ventured that the one 
universal enemy of the white man in the Tropics is not tropi- 
cal disease, but plain laziness. 

This laziness is of such an insidious nature that one readily 
yields to the tradition quite apparent in tropical countries that 
it is actually dangerous for the white man to work. This con- 
clusion is the more readily accepted when one realizes that 
practically all of his fellows have accepted the same conclu- 
sion and have become surrounded with the swarm of Oriental 
servants so ready to perform every service involving manual 
labor. In Cuba, Porto Rico, and Hawaii, on the other hand, 
there are colonies of white farmers working in the fields at 
heavy physical labor in the manner to which they were accus- 
tomed in northern regions and remaining in the most vigorous 
health during their whole life time. In view of the accumu- 
lated experience of white farmers and business men through- 
out the tropical countries of the world, one would seem to be 
justified in coming to the conclusion that the necessity for 
physical exercise is not removed by settling in the Tropics. 

In connection with the general sanitary conditions of the 
Tropics, many questions arise in the minds of visitors as to the 



TROPICAL CLIMATE 15 

healthfulness and nutritive value of tropical foods. On this 
point it is not necessary to dwell at any length. In all tropi- 
cal countries, all tropical foods are safe, except vegetables to 
be eaten raw, and surface water. Lettuce, celery, radishes, 
strawberries, etc., irrigated by Chinese methods, are not safe 
foods, particularly in case of an outbreak of Asiatic cholera, 
and, moreover, are not appetizing under any circumstances, 
if one knows by first hand observation something of the meth- 
ods of Oriental irrigation. Surface water can nowhere be 
recommended for use without boiling. This is equally true 
for northern climates. In the Tropics, however, there are 
added dangers from the prevalence of minute worms as well 
as the possibility of typhoid and cholera infection. 

The main point in keeping well in the Tropics is to remem- 
ber that a reasonable amount of physical exercise is absolutely 
necessary, notwithstanding the fact that the general comfort- 
able feeling may easily persuade one to think that exercise 
may be omitted from the daily routine. It is perhaps well for 
everyone to continue the same form of exercise to which he 
was accustomed in the colder climates. Some exercise hobby, 
however, seems to be strictly required, and the Tropics offer 
the same list of recreations as colder climates, namely, tennis, 
golf, baseball, football, horseback riding, rowing, mountain 
climbing, and hunting. 



CHAPTER II 
TROPICAL SOILS 

Many chemical changes are hastened by the application of 
heat. This is illustrated by the rapidity with which chemical 
changes take place in soils under the influence of constant 
warm weather. Rocks and soils decompose with remarkable 
rapidity in the Tropics. Even fresh lava flows in a district 
of abundant rainfall may become sufficiently disintegrated in 
five to ten years to furnish suitable conditions of growth for 
a considerable variety of plants. In fact, volcanic cinder, if 
blown out in a state of sufficiently fine fragmentation, is im- 
mediately available as a soil. The only element of plant food 
in which such material is deficient is nitrogen. In regions of 
modern volcanic flows and eruptions, there are, therefore, 
many soils of very recent origin. These soils differ greatly 
in physical and chemical composition from the familiar soils 
of temperate climates. The basaltic lava from volcanoes 
may be disintegrated in place to form soils containing a mix- 
ture of mineral elements in essentially the same proportion in 
which they occurred in the original basalt. These soils have 
not been altered like the old alluvial soils by ages of secondary 
chemical changes and by the slow process of segregation of 
certain mineral forms so characteristic of secondary rocks and 
their resulting soils. 

Notwithstanding the recent origin of many tropical soils, 
particularly in volcanic regions, it is obviously impossible for 
these soils long to retain the composition of the original basaltic 
lava. Extensive leaching takes place under the influence of 
heavy tropical rainfall. This leaching affects not only the 

16 



TROPICAL SOILS 17 

original constituents of the disintegrated lava, but also the 
fertilizer materials which are applied to such soils. Lime and 
nitrate of soda are readily leached out of volcanic soils, while 
ammonium sulphate and phosphates are fixed in the soils to 
a rather surprising extent. The humus content of tropical soils 
is ordinarily high. This is due to the great mass of vegetation 
produced under tropical conditions. If, however, there are 
long intervals between the rainy seasons, the humus in soils 
is rapidly decomposed under the influence of heat and aeration. 
Practically all tropical soils contain a relatively high per- 
centage of iron. In Hawaii, the iron content of soils is lo to 
45 per cent, (usually about 20 per cent.) ; in Samoa, 15 to 
20 per cent. ; in Kamerun, 7 to 14 per cent. ; in Madagascar, 
about 10 per cent. ; and in India, 2 to 48 per cent. This iron 
commonly exists in the condition of three oxids, the ferrous, 
ferric, and magnetic. Fortunately for the farmer the ferrous 
iron is usually very insoluble except when the soil becomes 
puddled so that suitable aeration can not take place. Granules 
of magnetic iron oxid are of much more frequent occurrence 
in volcanic soils than in the old soils of temperate climates. 
In Hawaii, for example, magnetic iron is present to an appreci- 
able extent in all soils, as may be seen by passing a magnet 
over a sample of pulverized dry soil. These magnetic iron 
granules are black, but soon assume the red color of ferric oxid 
as the result of further oxidation. In certain localities there 
are immense quantities of volcanic cinder or black sand which 
have resulted from volcanic explosions. Several crops make 
a satisfactory growth upon pure deposits of this volcanic cin- 
der. In some localities in Hawaii the cinder contains a much 
higher content of potash than the ordinary lava resulting from 
a flow. While the lava obtained from ordinary flows contains 
slightly less than one per cent, of potash the cinder may show 
from two to five per cent, of potash. This potash is, however, 
not immediately available, but becomes soluble slowly through 
the gradual disintegration of the cinder. The volcanic cinder 



18 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

is quite commonly used in lawns and gardens for mixing with 
the heavy soils to improve the aeration and the drainage. 

The so-called clay soils of certain tropical countries are 
often clay only in mechanical analysis, not in composition. 
These clays are not aluminium silicate but are high in their 
content of iron and aluminium hydrates and low in silicates. 
These soils are commonly referred to as laterite soils. The 
term is not easily defined, but is usually taken to mean heavy 
tropical soils formed from decomposing lava under the influ- 
ence of hfeat, tropical downpours, and periods of drought. 

Laterite soils are not only extremely heavy, but pack and 
puddle badly. The texture is injured by any manipulation 
while the soil is too moist. Even when allowed to stand after 
a year or two without cultivation the soils become so badly 
packed as to become almost impervious to air and water. Dur- 
ing periods of drought wide, deep cracks form in such soils 
and the cracks are quickly filled again by the swelling process 
which occurs with the return of the rainy season. As already 
stated, however, these soils are not true clay and cannot be 
used for the formation of brick. If bricks are made from 
laterite soils they will readily disintegrate under the influence 
of weather conditions. The huge lumps which are turned 
up in plowing laterite soils gradually slack like lumps of lime 
under the influence of moisture and sunshine. 

Mention may well be made of a few peculiar soils which oc- 
cur in Hawaii and elsewhere in the Tropics. The most highly 
manganiferous soils thus far studied occur in Hawaii. In the 
mainland soils of the United States manganese may be found 
as a mere trace and usually not to an appreciable extent. In 
Hawaii, however, nearly all soils contain from one-quarter to 
one-half per cent, of manganese and in certain restricted areas 
the content of manganese rises to lo per cent. Soils which 
contain three per cent, of manganese or more are floury, of a 
chocolate color, and will not pack like the ordinary laterite 
soils, but remain always in a fine state of tilth. Not all crops, 



TROPICAL SOILS 19 

however, will grow satisfactorily on highly manganiferous 
soils. Pineapples, for example, cannot be made to yield satis- 
factory returns on soils containing more than 2^^ or 3 per cent, 
of manganese. The presence of large quantities of manganese 
in the soil has the peculiar effect of disturbing the mineral 
balance, forcing the pineapple to absorb lime out of all pro- 
portion with magnesium. The result of this unbalanced soil 
solution is that the pineapple leaves lose their green color, be- 
coming yellowish and finally dying, while the fruit turns pink 
at an immature stage and always remains much more acid 
than normal fruits. 

In a few localities, soils of a very high titanium content oc- 
cur, the titanium sometimes amounting to 35 per cent. This 
element, however, has no apparent effect upon the growth of 
plants. In one restricted locality in Hawaii pineapples thrive 
well on a soil of which iron and titanium alone constitute 85 
per cent. Soils with a high titanium content have a bluish 
or black color, especially when slightly moist, and will stain the 
hands almost as effectively as a paint pigment. 

Near the seashore of all tropical islands surrounded with 
coral reefs occur areas of soil constituted largely of coral sand. 
The chief constituent of this sand is carbonate of lime. Coral 
sand mixed with a small percentage of soil washed down 
from upper levels and containing minute quantities of humus 
is quite satisfactory for the growth of watermelons, sweet 
potatoes, coconuts, and a number of other crops. The 
coral sand is also extensively used for the purpose of liming 
soils. 

One of the peculiarities of the laterite soils of the Tropics 
is their high hygroscopic moisture content. Many of the deep, 
rich soils of the Western States have a hygroscopic moisture 
content of about 12 or 13 per cent. The laterite soils of the 
Tropics, however, may contain 24 per cent, of moisture in an 
air-dry condition. It is quite plain, therefore, that these tropi- 
cal soils require a much higher total moisture content for the 



20 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

satisfactory growth of crops than is the case with the common 
soils of temperate cHmates. 

It is a peculiar fact that on tropical islands in the trade-wind 
belt drainage is a difficult matter on the lee side, while little 
or no attention need be given to drainage on the windward side 
of the island. The heavy laterite soils on the lee side of the 
Hawaiian Islands require extremely deep plowing, the addi- 
tion of green manures, and sometimes the use of dynamite and 
other treatment in order to provide suitable drainage for mois- 
ture movement and for the process of aeration. On the wind- 
ward side of the same island, however, under a much greater 
rainfall there are commonly few running streams and appa- 
rently almost no superficial runoff of water. In some farming 
sections of the windward side of the island of Hawaii, water 
for household use must be obtained from rain water caught 
from the roofs of buildings, although the rainfall for months 
at a time may average an inch a day. This water passes 
through the soil and on into the porous lava rocks underneath, 
furnishing no running streams or standing water. 

The use of dynamite in improving the drainage conditions 
and tilth of soil has been adopted in a number of tropical 
countries. The object in using dynamite in the Tropics is not 
always precisely the same as that which prevails in cold cli- 
mates where a distinct subsoil or hardpan may underlie the 
arable soil. In the laterite soils of the Tropics there is little 
or no distinction between soil and subsoil, the only apparent 
change being one of color in passing from the top layer to a 
depth of four or five feet. Since, however, these soils pack 
very firmly during the long intervals between plowing, it is 
obvious that some method of providing better subdrainage is 
necessary. This perhaps has been accomplished in many in- 
stances by the use of dynamite. The best results have been 
obtained by exploding sticks of low-grade dynamite at a depth 
of 3>^ to 4 feet and at distances of lo to 20 feet apart both 
ways. The effect of the dynamite is to form cracks and crey- 



TROPICAL SOILS 21 

ices extending downward and in all directions so as practically 
to meet the crevices formed by neighboring explosions. 

On account of the fact that most tropical crops are allowed 
to remain in the soil for five years or more the soil is evi- 
dently subjected to a slow packing process which interferes 
with aeration and consequently with nitrification. In almost 
any sample of laterite soil which has not been disturbed for 
a year, nitric nitrogen occurs only as a mere trace, while the 
total nitrogen may indicate a fertile soil. By thorough tillage 
and furnishing proper drainage conditions, aeration may be 
set into active operation, thus providing the proper conditions 
for the rapid growth of all plants which require nitrogen in 
the nitrate form. 

In the growth of sugar cane, the usual system of taking one 
plant crop and two rattoon crops requires from 4^ to 5 years. 
In order to prepare the soil as thoroughly as possible for this 
long period of plant growth, deep plowing has been adopted. 
This is accomplished either by traction engine, by ox and 
mule teams, or still better by stationary engines and cable. By 
the latter means, it is possible to plow from 16 inches to 3 feet 
in depth. Obviously, the greater the depth of soil thus stirred 
up and pulverized, the longer the time required for it to be- 
come packed and impervious again. When plowed by steam 
plows to a depth of two feet or more, laterite soils are thrown 
up largely in huge lumps which require exposure to the sun 
and water for slacking into a granular form. 

In some of the sugar-growing countries, notably in Hawaii, 
it was long maintained by the sugar planters that no attention 
need be paid to cover crops or humus. It was assumed that 
the soils were inexhaustible and that efforts put forth to restor- 
ing humus were merely lost and useless. During a consider- 
able series of years, the sugar cane was harvested by setting 
fires in the fields at the time of maturity. These fires went 
raging through the field like a forest fire, destroying everything 
except the green stalks of cane. These were immediately har- 



22 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

vested and ground. This system of burning the cane resulted, of 
course, in the total destruction of the leaves and other trash 
which would otherwise have been returned to the soil. The 
folly of this tremendous waste of vegetable substance has at 
last been realized, and the cane tops and leaves are returned 
to the soil, supplemented with green manuring crops which 
are planted immediately after the second rattoon crop is re- 
moved. The same change of habit has occurred among the 
pineapple growers, who found that a good tilth of laterite soils 
cannot be maintained without giving strict attention to the 
humus content of the soils. 

In Hawaii, an excellent opportunity was offered for the 
study of the leaching and weathering processes which natu- 
rally occur in the lava rock. A chemical study was, therefore, 
made of the life history of Hawaiian soils. For this purpose, 
samples of lava were taken from the historic flows known to 
have occurred in 1910, 1907, 1883, 1868, and 1823. These 
flows were all from the same volcano. It appeared from a 
chemical study of these samples of lava that lime is the element 
which is leached out to the greatest extent. This also gives 
an indication of the necessity of supplying lime to these soils 
in order to balance the loss from excessive rainfall and leach- 
ing. The supply of suitable lime for agricultural purposes is 
at hand in the immense deposits of coral sand on the seashore. 

From the standpoint of cultivation, many tropical soils are 
exceedingly heavy. The power required, for example, in plow- 
ing soils in Hawaii and in Poona, India, is much greater than 
would be needed in plowing to the same depth in the familiar 
soils of the United States. Three or four mules are required 
for an ordinary mold-board plow turning the soil to a depth of 
six inches. The difficulty of plowing these heavy soils has 
induced most planters to resort to power plows. In very heavy 
soils, as already indicated, the most satisfactory device is the 
system with two stationary engines, one at either end of a 
long cable which hauls a heavy, single mold-board or gang 



TROPICAL SOILS 23 

plow back and forth across the field. Outfits of this sort cost 
about $25,000 and are sufficiently strong to endure the great 
strain required to turn up the clod-packed, laterite soils. 
Traction engines have been found rather unsatisfactory for 
these heavy soils, although in some instances it is possible to 
plow 12 inches deep with a traction engine. 

Another difficulty encountered, in plowing laterite soils of 
the Tropics lies in the fact that these soils do not scour the 
plow. Experiments have been carried on in modifying the 
surface of plows with the idea that they might be made to 
scour, even in the gritless laterite soils. No success, however, 
has ever been achieved along this fine, either by modifications 
of the surface of the plow or of the kind of metal in the mold 
board or by the use of a slat mold board in place of a solid 
one. The only condition under which laterite soils will scour 
is the muddy stage in which some of the rice soils are plowed. 
The draft upon the plow in soils which do not scour is of 
course much heavier than in scouring soils. 

The investigations which have thus far been made on heavy 
tropical soils, particularly laterite soils, have shown clearly 
that the mechanical condition of soils is of prime importance 
in their use for agricultural purposes. Most of these soils 
contain plant food in abundance, but when the soils become 
thoroughly packed and impervious to air and water the 
chemical compounds in soil become less soluble or fixed in com- 
binations from which plants cannot take sustenance. The thor- 
ough aeration of these heavy soils not only brings about the 
rapid nitrification of the organic nitrogen and ammonia, but 
renders all chemical compounds more soluble and increases 
the rate of movement of soil moisture. Under proper tillage 
it has been found that fertilizers applied to the soils are much 
more beneficial than when applied to improperly tilled soils. 
If the laterite soils are allowed to become thoroughly packed, 
it has been found that fertilizers are fixed by these soils 
beyond the power of plants to take them up. 



CHAPTER III 
AGRICULTURAL METHODS PECULIAR TO THE TROPICS 

The climatic and cropping conditions which prevail in tropi- 
cal countries make necessary certain characteristic practices 
which are more or less different from the farm practices of 
temperate climates. A large variety of crops need shade while 
young and provision is made for satisfactory shade in various 
ways, sometimes by the use of muslin, palm leaves, or slats, 
and frequently by the use of trees or shrubs planted with the 
crop. In the case of nursery beds for young seedlings of cof- 
fee, tea, cacao, etc., shade is almost always provided until the 
seedlings are nearly ready to transplant. They may then be 
held for a short time in a slightly shaded locality in order to 
season them to some extent for standing in the full glare of 
the tropical sun. With slow growing tree crops like those 
just mentioned the practice prevails in some localities of inter- 
planting with some rapid growing plant which will over-top 
the young trees and furnish a certain amount of shade for 
the first year or two of growth. Among the plants which have 
been used for shading crops in the Tropics we may mention 
bananas, castor bean, Ceara rubber, silky oak {Grevillea ro- 
busta), and a great variety of leguminous trees, including 
dadap, madre de cacao, and several species of Albizzia and of 
Inga. Quite spirited controversies have been carried on re- 
garding the need of permanent shade for coffee, cacao, and 
certain other tropical crops, but the practice in this regard is 
by no means uniform in tropical countries. Some growers 
use no shade for coffee or cacao except in the nursery beds dur- 
ing the early growth of the young trees. Other growers claim 

24 



TROPICAL AGRICULTURAL METHODS 25 

to have best results from permanent partial shade furnished by 
ceara rubber or other shade trees in the plantations. 

In exposed localities windbreaks seem to be perhaps more 
urgently needed in the Tropics than in temperate climates. 
Tropical plants are extremely sensitive to change of tempera- 
ture, especially to relatively low temperature. The constant 
blowing of the dry trade wind causes rapid transpiration of 
plants and a consequent lowering of the temperature of the 
plants. Rows of trees planted for the purpose of furnishing 
windbreaks are therefore of great benefit when running at 
intervals of lOO to 200 yards across the fields at right angles 
to the prevailing wind. In fields thus furnished with wind- 
breaks many tropical crops show a regular gradation in size 
from the lee side of each row of windbreak trees to the wind- 
ward side of the next row of trees. Some crops in the most 
exposed situation do not attain a size greater than half that 
of the plants in the lee of an effective windbreak. 

The choice of a plant for windbreak purposes depends some- 
what on the nature of the crop to be protected and the strength 
of the winds. For low growing plants, pigeon pea furnishes 
an excellent protection against the wind. This may be grown 
in dense rows and pruned back annually so as to form a close 
hedge somewhat resembling the privet hedge in appearance. 
The pigeon pea is a perennial and may best be used as a wind- 
break in gardens and for the protection of truck crops under 
field conditions. The castor bean grows rapidly and is an 
excellent plant for withstanding fierce and continuous winds 
in exposed localities. It will continue to grow rather rapidly 
even when the winds are so strong as to prevent the develop- 
ment of a symmetrical bush. 

In exposed locahties in the immediate neighborhood of the 
seashore, the Majagua or hau (Hibiscus tiliaceus) is an excel- 
lent shrub for use as a windbreak. It will thrive with its feet 
in salt water and is not destroyed by salt spray, the foliage 
being promptly restored after burning by the salt water. The 



26 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

ironwood or Australian pine (Casuarina equisetifoUa) does 
excellent service as a windbreak in almost any situation. It 
will thrive in brackish or actual salt water at sea level, grows 
well where the rainfall is relatively heavy, and is also ex- 
tremely drought resistant. After becoming well established, 
it will readily withstand droughts in which all species of euca- 
lyptus die out. Where there is a reasonable amount of rain- 
fall, eucalyptus is an excellent tree for use as a windbreak. 
Perhaps Eucalyptus robusta is the most satisfactory for this 
purpose. It may be planted in three rows of trees alternating 
in position so as to make a dense windbreak zone. Under 
favorable conditions they may be expected to reach a height of 
15 to 20 feet in two years. 

The number of trees used for windbreaks is legion and in 
different tropical countries the choice of planters for wind- 
break trees naturally varies according to their experience in 
their own locality. In all tropical countries lying within the 
trade-wind belt it is well to plant rows of trees adapted for 
windbreaks at suitable intervals across the fields of arable land. 
Windbreaks are useful and almost necessary in the case of the 
more tender and sensitive tropical plants, but of course are not 
required on plantations of sugar cane and pineapples. 

On account of the fact that weeds grow the year round in 
tropical countries, certain special methods of weeding have 
been adopted in order to reduce the expense of the constant 
cultivation for the destruction of weeds. In the case of many 
tropical crops, such as sugar cane, coffee, bananas, etc., the crop 
itself even before it reaches full size so completely shades the 
ground as to destroy most of the weeds between the rows. 
During the early growth of these crops, however, attention 
must be given to the destruction of the weeds. In some cases 
the use of leguminous cover crops has given excellent and 
economic results in weed destruction. In Hawaii, Crotalaria 
has been used for this purpose with good results. The cover 
crop must be a quick and vigorous grower in order to rise above 



TROPICAL AGRICULTURAL METHODS 27 

the weeds and kill them out by shading, after which the cover 
crop itself may be plowed under or cultivated into the soil in 
order to improve the physical condition of the soil. 

In localities of excessively high rainfall it often happens 
that the rain occurs daily and almost continuously for periods 
of several months. Under such conditions it is impossible 
to destroy weeds by cultivation, and cultivation, moreover, in- 
jures the texture of the soil when it is in a muddy condition. 
In Hawaii the use of a spray of arsenite of soda has found 
great favor as a weed destroyer under such circumstances. 
It has been used for this purpose for six years or more on 
thousands of acres of land devoted to rubber ranching, sugar 
cane, and pineapples, and in all cases with satisfactory results. 
The spray is prepared by boiling two pounds of sal soda and 
one pound of arsenic in a gallon of water until the mixture is 
clear. The mixture is then diluted to make from 20 to 24 gal- 
lons of spraying material. If desired, seven ounces of caustic 
soda may be used in the place of two pounds of sal soda. For 
the successful application of this spray it is merely necessary 
to have a few hours of weather without rain. The spray is 
applied to the green growing parts of the weeds and produces 
the effect of prompt burning of the foliage and tender stems. 
Special machinery has been devised which prevents the spray 
from coming in contact with sugar cane, pineapples, or other 
crops. The cost of application even on rough land has been 
found to be about $1.25 an acre. Arsenite of soda destroys 
all ordinary herbaceous weeds and has also been found to kill 
wild raspberries, Lantana, and various other weedy shrubs. 

Insects, like weeds, are busy the year round in tropical coun- 
tries. The cost of making frequent applications of insecticides 
month after month and the impossibility of applying insecti- 
cides under any circumstances to sugar cane and certain other 
tropical crops have necessitated the adoption of other methods 
than artificial insecticides for the control of injurious insects. 
One method which has perhaps come most prominently to pub- 



28 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

lie attention consists in the artificial propagation and distribu- 
tion of insect parasites. Perhaps the best results with insect 
parasites have been obtained in Hawaii, where by this means 
complete control was secured over the sugar-cane leaf-hopper 
and the sugar-cane borer. Recently, moreover, the insect para- 
sites imported for the control of the Mediterranean fruit fly 
appear to be giving promise of efficient help. 

Similarly with plant diseases, the favorable conditions for 
fungous and bacterial growth furnished by continuous warm 
weather and moist atmosphere make these enemies of crop 
production more serious at times perhaps than is ever the case 
in temperate climates. Certain notorious diseases of plants 
have made the cultivation of certain crops impossible in some 
localities. Thus, we have the well known case of the coffee 
leaf blight Hemileia vastatrix which totally destroyed the 
coffee industry of Ceylon and parts of India, forcing the coffee 
growers into the production of tea. In parts of Central Amer- 
ica and the north coast of South America, the Panama disease 
of bananas has caused such ravages among susceptible varie- 
ties of bananas in certain localities that the industry had to 
be abandoned. In a few instances, resort was had to the 
Chinese banana, which is not susceptible to the disease. Not- 
withstanding the great economic disturbances caused by the 
prevalence of such diseases, the abandonment of one crop 
and adaptation of another crop were accomplished without 
staggering financial loss and in the end to the benefit of the 
planters concerned. On the whole, insect pests and plant 
diseases are no more serious obstacles to agricultural produc- 
tion and development in the Tropics than in the temperate 
climate. 



CHAPTER IV 
IMPORTANCE OF TROPICAL PRODUCTS IN COMMERCE 

The importance of tropical agricultural products is often 
little realized even by persons who use or consume these prod- 
ucts daily. This is perhaps partly due to the fact that aside 
from fruits the products come to the consumer as finished 
manufactured articles and bring with them no hint of their 
tropical origin. There is nothing, for example, suggestive 
of the Tropics in rubber bands, chewing gum, gunny bags, 
binding twine for harvesters, and chocolate candy. Neverthe- 
less, the essential constituents of all of these products come 
exclusively from tropical countries. There are a few tropical 
products which have recently assumed much commercial im- 
portance, particularly in the United States. It is reported, 
for example, that the inhabitants of this country spend more 
than $io,ooo,ocx3 annually on chewing gum, the basis for which 
is chicle, a strictly tropical product. 

With tropical fruits the case is somewhat different. The 
most casual observer recognizes at once the foreign and tropi- 
cal character of the avocado, papaya, mango, mangosteen, cus- 
tard apple, and various other tropical fruits which occasionally 
find their way to the markets of colder climates. All the 
world has become familiar with citrus fruit, bananas, and 
pineapples. The other tropical fruits are less familiar to the 
inhabitants of cold cHmates and their ultimate commercial im- 
portance in cold climates is still somewhat uncertain. Avo- 
cados are generally relished even upon first acquaintance. 
This is not always true, however, and many persons fail to 
acquire a liking for them even after long acquaintance. Simi- 

29 



30 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

larly with papayas, they are considered by different individuals 
as fit for the gods, or fit for pigs, according to individual taste. 
Mangos oflfer another illustration of this point. Some of 
them taste so strongly of turpentine and contain so much fiber 
that they can hardly be considered more than a mere unpleasant 
curiosity. Other varieties, however, have extreme delicacy of 
flavor and the prospect of a commercial market for them is 
probably greater than for avocado or perhaps for any tropical 
fruit aside from citrus, bananas, and pineapples. 

One of the possible reasons, however, for the slow progress 
which many tropical fruits have made in cold climate markets 
is that there are no commercial orchards of these fruits in ex- 
istence. Notwithstanding the fact that mangos, avocados, 
papayas, carambolas, custard apples, mangosteen, guava, and 
many other strictly tropical fruits have been cultivated 
throughout the Tropics for hundreds, and some of them for 
thousands, of years, there are still no commercial orchards of 
these fruits. In every dooryard in tropical countries one finds 
one or two trees of nearly all of these fruits and the house- 
holder is therefore supplied with the quantity which he may 
need. On this account no occasion has arisen until recently 
for engaging in the production of these fruits on a commer- 
cial scale. It is a curious fact that perhaps the largest avocado 
orchards in the world are at present located in Florida, al- 
though the industry has only recently been taken up in that 
locality. When a greater variety of tropical fruits is raised in 
commercial orchards in tropical countries, it may be possible 
that more of them will become familiar to the inhabitants of 
cold climates and that a demand of commercial importance 
will arise for these fruits. Experiments recently conducted 
at the Hawaii Experiment Station showed that most tropical 
fruits could readily be held in cold storage for one to three 
months. It will therefore be possible, if the demand arises, 
to supply the tropical fruits to the markets of colder climates 
by means of refrigeration on steamship and freight car. 



TROPICAL PRODUCTS IN COMMERCE SI 

It is unlikely, however, that any large proportion of these 
fruits will ever assume the importance now held by apples, 
pears, and peaches as well as by citrus, bananas, and pineap- 
ples for the reason that few persons care for tropical fruits 
as a regular daily diet. Many of them have a peculiar delicacy 
which seems very agreeable, but one is often astonished to find 
that he does not care for another fruit of the same sort for 
several days. Although the praises of the mangosteen, for 
example, have been sung by many travelers, the majority of 
dwellers in the temperate climate would prefer the apple 
to the mangosteen as a regular part of the daily fare. 
Many of the less common tropical fruits are insipid or gen- 
erally lacking in flavor, so that a mere taste is all that one 
cares for. As oddities, such fruits may always find a small 
sale, but as commercial fresh fruits, the Tropics appear to 
offer at present only citrus, bananas, pineapples, mangos, 
avocados, and possibly papaya, passion fruit, and custard 
apple. 

The commercial future of tropical agricultural products 
other than fruits rests, however, on a somewhat different basis. 
The world's demand for oils, fibers, rubber, gums, tanning ma- 
terials, beverages, coconuts, and sugar is thoroughly estab- 
lished and is increasing every day. In 1914, the United States 
imported tropical agricultural products to the value of $600,- 
000,000, the total imports of all sorts for the same year being 
$1,789,000,000. Some idea of the importance of tropical agri- 
cultural production may be gained from the following figures, 
showing exports from certain tropical countries in 1914: 
India, $500,000,000; Ceylon, $49,000,000; Indo-China, $52,- 
000,000; Brazil, $343,000,000; Gold Coast, $9,900,000; Dutch 
East Indies, $436,000,000; Jamaica, $13,500,000; Ivory Coast, 
$3»5oo»ooo; Cuba, $164,800,000; Philippine Islands, $51,000,- 
000; Hawaii, $41,500,000; Porto Rico, $43,000,000; and Egypt, 
$158,300,000. 

The amount of tropical products imported by the United 



32 



TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 



States is shown in somewhat more detail in the following 
table : 



TROPICAL AGRICULTURAL IMPORTS OP THE UNITED STATES DURING 
THE FOUR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1914. 



Silk Obs.) 

Ostrich feathers (value) .... 

Buffalo hides (lbs.) 

Kangaroo hides (lbs.) 

Cocoa and chocolate (lbs.). . 

Coffee (lbs.) 

Curry (value) 

Ixtle or Tampico fiber (tons) 

Jute (tons) 

Kapok (tons) 

Manila (tons) 

New Zealand flax (tons) . . . 

Sisal (tons) 

Cinchona bark (lbs.) 

Logwood (tons) 

Camphor (lbs.) 

Chicle (lbs.) 

Copal, kauri, and dammar 

Obs.) 

Gambler or terra Japonica 

Obs.) 

Balata (lbs.) 

Guayule gum (lbs.) 

Gutta Joolatong or East 

Indian gum (lbs.) 

Gutta percha (lbs.) 

Rubber (lbs.) 

Mangrove bark (tons) 

Rattan (value) 

Bananas (bunches) 

Dates (lbs.) 

Figs (lbs.) 

Lemons (lbs.) 

Olives (gals.) 

Ginger, preserved (lbs.) .... 
Coconuts, unshelled (value) 
Coconut meat or copra (lbs.) 

Coconut oil (lbs.) 

Chinese nut oil (gals.) 

Palm oil (lbs.) 

Olive oil (gals.) 

Lemon oil (lbs.) 

Rice (lbs.) 

Castor beans (bushels) 

Cassia vera (lbs.) 

Ginger root, not preserved 

(lbs.) 

Pepper (lbs.) 

Sugar Gbs.) 

Tea (lbs.) 

Tobacco (lbs.) 

Vanilla beans (lbs.) 



26,666,091 



3.425,307 



140,970,877 

875.366,797 

I11.333 

6,874 

65.238 

2,070 

74,308 

2,679 

117,727 

3,826,048 



4,204,741 
6,508,208 

23,021,822 

18,764,507 

878,305 

19,749.522 

51,420,872 

1,648,921 

72,046,260 



$925,269 

44,699,232 

29,504.592 

23,459,728 

134,968,924 

3.044-947 

350,177 

$1,704,105 

37,817,051 

51,118,317 



57,100,406 

4,405,827 

430,458 

208,774.795 

745.035 



22,065,074 

;,937.978,26s 

102,653,942 

48,203,288 

1,140,650 



26,584,962 

$3,806,696 

4,906,362 

148,785,846 

885,201,247 

$10,441 

9.835 

101,001 

2,099 

68,536 

5.364 

114,467 

2,891,823 

39.571 

2,398,941 

7,782,005 

25,115.739 
21,002,795 

1. 517. 066 
14,238,625 

48,795,268 

1,204,406 

110,210,173 

21,779 

$898,552 

44.520,539 

25,208,248 

18,765,408 

145.639,396 

5,076,857 

468,329 

$1,949,406 

69,912,496 

46,370,732 

4.767.596 

47,159,238 

4.836,51s 

357,174 

190,063,331 

957.986 

6,795,943 

5,979.314 

25,802,252 

4,104,618,393 

101,406,816 

54,740,380 

841,628 



32,101,555 

$6,252,298 

16,234,751 

1,097.038 

143,509,852 

863,130,757 

$11,191 

9.573 

125.389 

2,842 

73.823 

7.827 

153,869 

3.553.239 

37.027 

4,200,520 

13.758,592 
28,573,201 
17,064,998 

1,318,598 

10,218,191 

45.345,338 
480,853 

90,170,316 

15.187 

$1,040,121 

42.357,109 
18,1*45,341 
16,837,819 

151,416,412 

3,946,076 

551.320 

$1,781,377 

40,870,367 

50,504,192 

5,996,666 
50,228,706 

5,221,001 

381,093 

222,103,547 

887,747 
6,853,915 

7.756,090 

27.562,361 

4,740,041,488 

94,812,800 

67.133.963 
1,049,497 



25,650,383 

$3,944,928 

13.042,828 

1,007,562 

180,548,794 

1,114,195,777 

12,727 

84,144 

2,349 

51.417 

4,828 

213,048 

3,944.509 

40,862 

3,488,271 

5,896,556 

28,647,148 

13,706,20s 
2,015,158 
2,275.540 

18,663,898 

1.923. 138 

143,065,161 

5.568 

$958,418 

48,683,592 

25,786,468 

20,506,563 

5.743.130 

_$i, 805,909 

60,076,664 

58,012,42s 

4,018,254 

49,092,150 

6,780,936 

486,371 

255,064.251 

928,322 

6,261,851 

3,528,142 

25,297,726 

5,417,995.129 

97,809,571 

57,406,522 

835,271 



Among the largest items of imports in the United States 
in 1914 were cane sugar, coffee, and silk, the aggregate value 
of these three imported products being $354,000,000, Other 



TROPICAL PRODUCTS IN COMMERCE 33 

items, as will be noticed in the above table, vary in amount 
imported from year to year according to the changes which 
occur in the extension of manufacturing of various products. 
Some articles imported from the Tropics appear to have 
reached their maximum, at least with the present population, 
and to be increasing slowly with the increase of population. 

The control and proper development of the Tropics is a 
problem of tremendous consequences. Year by year more 
tropical products become necessities in cold climates. This is 
apparent from the mere casual consideration of a list of the 
commonly imported tropical products, such as cane sugar, 
coconuts, tea, coffee, cocoa, bananas, pineapples, citrus fruits, 
olives, dates, figs, sisal, Manila hemp, jute, kapok, raffia, rub- 
ber, balata, gutta-percha, chicle and other gums, cinchona, tans 
and dyes, rice, sago, cassava, cinnamon, pepper, cloves, nut- 
meg, vanilla, and other spices, oils, such as palm, China wood, 
candlenut, castor, olive, cotton, lemon oil, etc. How many pub- 
lic men in the United States are really giving attention to the 
tropical question? Some energy has been expended in the 
introduction and popularization of tropical fruits in order to 
make our citizens familiar with these products and in order 
to learn whether the fruits may be cultivated in southern Flor- 
ida and California. This, however, cannot solve the whole 
problem. It concerns merely one phase of the question, the 
other and more important phase being the production of the 
articles in question in tropical countries which are best suited 
to the cultivation of such crops. 

The total land surface of the earth is estimated at 52,500,cxx) 
square miles. Of this area about 29,000,000 square miles is 
considered as fertile land. The total land area of the Tropics 
and subtropics is about 15,000,000 square miles. In the Trop- 
ics it has been estimated by Willis that 50,000,000 acres are 
devoted to the production of export crops and 275,000,000 
acres to the maintenance of the inhabitants of tropical coun- 
tries. This total of 325,000,000 acres cultivated in the Tropics 



34. TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

is about 30 per cent, of the tropical land area, and is probably 
too high an estimate. In the United States mainland the total 
improved land equals 25 per cent, of the total area, being 49 
per cent, in the North, 27 per cent, in the South, and 5 per 
cent, in the West. In tropical countries, there are about 86,- 
300,(X)0 acres in rice, 4,000,000 acres in sugar cane, 3,500,000 
acres in coconuts, 2,000,000 acres in tea, 2,000,000 acres in 
tobacco, 3,000,000 acres in jute, 1,500,000 acres in rubber, 
3,300,000 acres in coffee in Brazil alone, and 40,000,000 acres 
in millet. In addition to these areas devoted to tropical crops 
large areas are utilized for the production of agricultural crops 
which are grown also in temperate climates. For example, 
India exports 260,000,000 bushels of wheat annually, and corn 
is a crop of great importance in many strictly tropical countries. 
The English and Dutch and, more recently, the French and 
Belgians have made great progress with their tropical colonies. 
This progress is solidly based on a careful consideration of 
the natural resources of their colonies, the needs, rights, and 
welfare of the native races in these colonies, and the possibili- 
ties of commercial development in response to the demand of 
modern markets. The combined trade of England and the 
United States with tropical countries is estimated at $3,000,- 
000,000 yearly. The Tropics have one-half the arable land 
surface of the earth and this land is capable of continuous 
uninterrupted production the year round. The native tropical 
races are capable under proper treatment and guidance of 
making very effective farmers. Moreover, we should not for- 
get the opportunities for white farmers in tropical countries. 
Colonies of American farmers are giving a good account of 
themselves in Cuba and Porto Rico. The possession of the 
Philippines, Porto Rico, Hawaii, American Samoa, Guam, and 
the Panama Canal Zone makes it necessary for the United 
States to show an active interest in the tropical problem in 
all its phases. 



CHAPTER V 

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS AND OPPOR- 
TUNITIES IN THE TROPICS 

When the white man first began to visit tropical countries 
for adventure or discovery or curiosity or business, he found 
these countries in the possession of native races, mostly brown 
and black. Tropical agriculture was originally, of course, al- 
together in the hands of these native races. Until the organiz- 
ing and commercial mind of the white man interfered in the 
development of possibilities in the Tropics, practical agricul- 
ture was to a large extent confined to the collection of wild 
products growing naturally in abundance in the primitive 
jungles or as the result of simple methods of cultivation in 
small areas about native huts. 

The European explorers at once recognized the commercial 
possibilities in tropical countries. The white man's attitude 
toward the Tropics from the very first has been one of ex- 
ploitation. This has involved the use of the native as a peon 
belonging to an inferior race. In the early literature regard- 
ing agricultural and commercial possibilities in the Tropics, 
it is usually stated with refreshing frankne<^s that the native 
races are obviously inferior to the white race and that their 
supposed rights to property in tropical countries must yield 
to the superior demands of the white race. 

As rapidly as men of finance could be interested in tropical 
development, huge corporations began to be formed involving 
absentee landlordism in its purest and most exaggerated form 
with practically all the stock owned in European countries. 
It is a notorious fact that the native tropical races have usually 

35 



36 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

had no such idea of the value of land as is possessed by the 
white race. Most of these lands were held by them in common 
and if an individual wished to move to another locality he 
readily found in his new place of abode suitable land for 
his simple wants. It was in no instance, therefore, a difficult 
matter to persuade the natives to sell their land for a very 
small mess of pottage, or to force them to sell by economic 
pressure. The white race assuredly cannot point with pride 
to the methods which it has used in gaining land in the Tropics. 
At the present time there are extremely few, if any, locali- 
ties in the Tropics in which the individual settler from tem- 
perate chmates can establish himself without the possession of 
considerable capital. Such a settler must at least have enough 
to tide him over the first two or three years. It should be re- 
membered that most tropical crops require three years or more 
of growth before they begin to bring in returns. The cost of 
clearing land and preparing it for cultivation is greater in tropi- 
cal countries than in cold chmates and the expense of living 
may be correspondingly high. The labor which one will be 
forced to employ in carrying on large agricultural operations 
is cheap in price but not very effective. In large plantations 
the usual system of managing labor is the gang method in 
which a group of laborers are worked together under a field 
boss. Various devices have been used in different tropical 
countries to improve the effectiveness of labor and especially to 
attach the laborer more permanently to the land. For this 
purpose cheap shacks are built for the laborers, these shacks 
being arranged in groups so as to constitute labor camps 
located conveniently to the fields in which the laborer will be 
required to work. The laborer is usually furnished free fuel 
and medical attendance. In many cases a so-called homestead- 
ing system has been adopted by which the laborer is given from 
one to six acres of land as a small farm upon which he may 
raise fruit products. For the most part, however, these small 
homesteads have not been designed as real homesteads but 



ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 37 

merely as a bait to hold the laborer permanently attached to the 
plantation. 

On most of these small so-called homesteads little work is 
done except occasionally by the women and children. The 
time of the men is all required on the plantation and they have 
no leisure nor energy for work on their own little plat of land. 
As a rule, plantation laborers are expected to trade at the 
plantation stores. At such stores their credit is good up to 
the extent of their wages and the proverbial improvidence of 
the coolie laborer usually keeps him either in debt to the plan- 
tation store or with his head barely above the financial pool 
in which he is forced to swim. Most of the labor employed 
on the large sugar and other plantations succeeds in making 
a bare living. Theoretically these laborers are free, but eco- 
nomically they are slaves. 

The white man can work in the Tropics and it is better 
for him to do so. On account of the fact that in most tropical 
countries the best opportunities have already been seized by 
large corporations it is sometimes difficult for the individual 
farmer to find a location where he can make a reasonable living 
without much annoyance and trouble. By means of coopera- 
tive associations, however, many of the difficulties of destitu- 
tion and financial embarrassment are overcome. In Porto Rico, 
white men working cooperatively have developed a $3,000,000 
fresh fruit industry from nothing in a period of ten years. 
Moreover, white colonies of fruit and truck gardeners are 
prospering in Cuba, particularly in La Gloria, Herradurra, 
and Isle of Pines. The fruit raiser or truck gardener who 
requires some additional labor to run his place will have 
choice among various races. Of all the kinds of labor available 
in the Tropics, the Chinese is probably the best, being willing, 
tractable, and of unusual skill and endurance. 

Social groups in the Tropics are prone to split up along 
racial lines with the assumption of inferior and superior races. 
An endless amount of intermarriage between various races has 



38 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

occurred largely as a result of the white man's interference 
in the development of the Tropics. Not only have the various 
races of European origin freely intermarried with other races 
of darker color, but they have been instrumental in bringing 
together a hodge-podge of races in nearly every tropical coun- 
try as a result of the constant endeavor to secure cheap and 
abundant labor. Of all the races which are found in tropical 
countries, the Japanese perhaps intermarry least frequently. 

The social and business standing of half-breeds varies 
greatly, according to country and locality and according to 
the apparent merits of the mixed races. In Hawaii, for ex- 
ample, the half-whites, bom of white fathers and Hawaiian 
mothers, mingle with the best of society just as do the pure 
native Hawaiians. The point of race inferiority has never 
been raised by the white man in Hawaii, at least as applied to 
the Hawaiian. The intensity of race prejudice, however, va- 
ries greatly with locality and individual. Even in a city like 
Honolulu, where nearly all the human races and practically 
all possible mixtures of these races occur, there is grow- 
ing intensity of race feeling which in all probability will ulti- 
mately lead to a decided diminution in race mixtures and to 
a reestablishment of purer races. While it was once thought 
to be of no consequence whatever that an Anglo-Saxon in 
Hawaii should marry a pure Hawaiian, there is a growing feel- 
ing that an individual with pure ancestry running back for a 
thousand years or more should have too much race pride to 
allow his family tree to terminate in a nondescript twig of the 
half-breed type. 

The opportunities offered in the Tropics to the intending 
settler from colder climates depend on many factors, such 
as physical acclimatabiHty of the settler, the amount of his 
capital, his special training, and, above all, his grit and com- 
mon sense. The white laborer will find little opportunity in 
tropical countries for, in the field of labor, either skilled or 
unskilled, he will have to compete with the ubiquitous Oriental 



ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 39 

or some other race of a low standard of living. The best op- 
portunity which the Tropics offer is farming in cooperative 
communities favorably located as regards markets. Residents 
of the Tropics are often consulted for advice regarding the 
stock-selling companies dealing with agricultural products. 
There seems to be only one answer that can be made to such 
inquiries and that is, in general, do not buy stock bhndly in 
tropical agricultural companies. The frauds and failures of 
rubber companies in Mexico and elsewhere have not only 
brought financial ruin to hundreds of individuals but have 
greatly injured the development of legitimate enterprises of 
this sort. Companies which pretend to be developing rubber 
and fiber industries in newly opened tracts of tropical land may 
well be carefully investigated before any stock is purchased. 
Hell is paved with prospectuses of fiber and rubber com- 
panies, some of which have never actually developed an acre 
of land upon which they have pretended to hold option. 

The Tropics offer rather abundant and brilliant opportuni- 
ties for trained men from various lines. The Tropics need 
trained chemists, agronomists, horticulturists, entomologists, 
pathologists, and veterinarians. For the substantial develop- 
ment of tropical agriculture there is great need of white set- 
tlers like the type of men who settled our West, but with more 
money. There is need of colleges of tropical agriculture in 
the Tropics. At present there can hardly be said to exist a 
college of tropical agriculture, and yet there is constant call 
for men especially trained in the production or manufacturing 
processes connected with various agricultural crops. The 
Tropics need broad-minded sociologists, or rather social work- 
ers, prepared to study and to help solve the endless interracial 
problems. The Tropics need also the enlightened interest of 
the genuine statesmen of the dominant races of the world. If 
these needs are all adequately met the Tropics may contribute 
greatly to the necessities and luxuries of the world and may 
not become the battlefield of armed greed. 



40 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

The accounts of profits from tropical agriculture are often 
greatly exaggerated and are usually stated on a misleading 
basis. As a matter of fact, most of the profits of tropical 
agricultural corporations are profits on cheap labor, not profits 
from agriculture. A corporation with 2,000 laborers receiv- 
ing 50 cents a day but really earning $1 a day makes a clear 
profit of $250,000 a year over and above its legitimate agri- 
cultural profit as a result of underpaying the labor. As al- 
ready indicated, the laborer employed on tropical plantations 
is nearly on the same basis as the mule, that is, virorking for 
his board. 

As an example of the agricultural profits from the tropical 
industries we may take the economics of sugar production. 
The contract by which the small sugar planter disposes of his 
cane to the sugar mill in Hawaii varies somewhat according 
to the company. According to one scheme the small planter 
receives 48 cents of every dollar obtained for the raw sugar 
in San Francisco or New York. In other words, when sugar 
brings $75 a ton the homesteader or small planter gets $36 a 
ton and the sugar mill company gets $39 a ton. The sugar 
mill is at an expense of $5 per ton for milling and $9 for 
freight and the mill profit is, therefore, $25 a ton. On the 
other hand, it costs the small planter $4 a ton to produce his 
sugar cane and it requires at least 8 tons of cane to make one 
ton of sugar. The total cost to the small planter, therefore, 
of producing a ton of sugar is $32. The small planter, there- 
fore, makes a profit of $4 a ton on his sugar when the sugar 
sells for $75 a ton. Now an average yield of sugar in Hawaii 
is about 4>4 tons per acre and the small planter's profit per 
acre is therefore $18 on an 18 months' crop, or $12 per acre 
per year. The average size of the sugar cane homestead in 
Hawaii is about 10 acres. The homesteader's profit from his 
whole homestead is therefore $120 per year. If, however, 
sugar falls to $60 per ton the small planter actually loses. 
Moreover, many of the plantations pay for cane according to 



ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 41 

another plan by which the small planter or homesteader re- 
ceives $4 a ton for his cane. This is just the cost of produc- 
tion. In other words, the small planter works i8 months to 
get back after a few months' additional delay what he ex- 
pended in the production of his crop. The Porto Rico sugar 
mills, on the other hand, pay the planter 60 to 75 cents out 
of every dollar received for the sugar. The Porto Rico method 
allows a square deal to the small planter. 

Similarly with pineapples, the actual agricultural profits are 
not large as compared with mainland crops. In Hawaii, it 
costs from $11 to $14 to produce a ton of pineapples, the aver- 
age cost being perhaps $12. In 1914, the pineapple canneries 
of Hawaii reduced the prices which they offered to the pine- 
apple growers to $5 to $9 per ton. Previously the prices had 
been about $18 per ton. At the latter figure there was a profit 
of about $6 per ton to the grower. The average yield per acre 
is about 6 tons of pineapples, giving a total acre profit of $36 
for an 18 months' crop, or $24 per acre per year. The cost 
of producing bananas may be set at about 30 cents a bunch. 
The grower receives on an average about 40 cents a bunch, 
which gives him an apparent profit of 10 cents per bunch. 
The average yield of bananas is about 230 bunches per acre 
per year, thus yielding a total acre profit of $23, but it is 
unnecessary to elaborate statements of profits in connection 
with other tropical crops. The figures in any case are valid 
only for one locality and must be constantly revised on account 
of the changes in market facilities, prices of labor, and other 
factors. There are no huge profits from tropical agriculture 
for the small grower. In fact, his profits can in no event be 
larger than he can obtain from a smaller amount of effort in 
cold climates. The one hope for the homesteader or farmer or 
small grower in the Tropics is in the formation of cooperative 
communities, such as are already giving great promise 
in Porto Rico, in Cuba, and in Hawaii. While it is evi- 
dent from the figures just given of profits from sugar cane 



42 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

and pineapples that the small grower does not receive any 
large acre profit, it should be remembered that the profits of 
large corporations growing cane and pineapples in Hawaii 
average over $75 to $100 per acre per year as compared with 
the $12 to $20 profit to the small grower. This difiference, 
however, is due not to better management but, as already in- 
dicated, to the underpayment of labor. 

In connection with our tropical possessions we need a con- 
sistent and definite policy, a policy scientifically and economi- 
cally sound, a policy in which all interests will receive due 
consideration, namely, homesteaders, laborers, capital, and the 
welfare of the United States as a whole. It is perfectly futile 
to set ephemeral politicians at the business of running and 
developing the Tropics. Thus far such a system of managing 
the Tropics has merely developed a feudal system for the ex- 
ploitation of land and of cheap labor. The whole problem 
presented by the tropical possessions of the United States 
should be in the hands of trained men and should involve the 
cooperation of the Departments of Agriculture, Interior, Com- 
merce, Labor, War, and Navy. A definite policy could then 
be framed, announced, and consistently pushed forward with 
the assurance that greater and greater beneficial results would 
flow from it every year. 



CHAPTER VI 
SUGAR CANE 

Sugar cane is a tall, rank-growing grass, presumably a na- 
tive of India, Malaya, and Cochin China, and now cultivated 
throughout the Tropics and subtropics. It is doubtful 
whether the strictly wild species from which the cultivated 
varieties of sugar cane have been developed has been pre- 
served in any of its original habitats. Sugar cane is not only 
an extremely vigorous grass of rapid growth, but is of con- 
siderable ornamental beauty, especially when in tassel. 

The sugar cane is generally recognized as one of the most 
important commercial crops of the world. The world's trade 
in sugar is about 10,000,000 tons annually, of which 6,000,000 
tons are beet sugar and 4,000,000 tons cane sugar. India also 
produces about 2,500,000 tons of cane sugar annually which 
does not come into commerce but is consumed locally. Large 
quantities of sugar are also consumed in other sugar-produc- 
ing countries. The total world production of sugar is about 
20,885,000 tons. 

Sugar cane is referred by botanists to the species Saccharum 
ofUcinarum. There are several species of this genus, but 6". 
ofUcinarum is the only one with which we are concerned as a 
commercial sugar-producing plant. This species has been 
divided for purposes of classification into the groups genuinum 
(pale green or yellow canes), litteratum (greenish or yellow- 
ish canes with red stripes), and violaceum (violet-colored 
canes). These groups in turn are divided into the numerous 
varieties of cane which are cultivated throughout the tropi- 
cal countries. The stalk of sugar cane varies from 3 to 25 

43 



44 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

feet in length and from ^ to 3 inches in diameter. The length 
of the stem varies greatly according to variety, locality, and 
length of time during which it is allowed to grow. The length 
of the internodes between the joints commonly varies from 
4 to 10 inches, depending in turn primarily on the rate and 
vigor of growth. The roots of sugar cane, like those of most 
other grasses, are delicate and fibrous, varying in length from 
18 inches to 10 feet and distributed therefore widely through- 
out the soil, and under favorable conditions to a great depth. 
Sugar cane has no tap root. The leaf sheath of cane is about 
one foot long on an average and the leaves vary from two 
to four feet in length and two to three inches in width. At 
maturity, sugar cane forms long, beautiful silky tassels of 
panicled flowers. Seed is formed rather sparingly but per- 
sistent search has been kept up for seed in order to use it in 
producing seedlings. A/Iillions of seedlings have been raised, 
especially in Java, Barbados, and Hawaii. As with other 
cultivated plants, so with sugar cane, a great variation of 
characters has been thus obtained. Some of the seedling 
varieties which have been produced are of striking promise, 
producing not only a heavy growth of cane but an enormous 
yield of sugar. In a few instances, yields as high as 16 tons of 
sugar per acre have been obtained from seedling canes. 

In the sugar-producing countries, 100 or more varieties of 
sugar cane have received serious commercial attention. In 
most varieties the stalk is recumbent at the base, thus requir- 
ing more labor in harvesting. The stalks are erect, however, 
in the Demerara canes, particularly D. 1135, and in Yel- 
low Caledonia, Japanese cane, and a few other varieties. The 
sucrose content of sugar cane varies from 7 to 20 per cent, 
and the water content from 70 to 75 per cent. The sugar con- 
tent is much affected by weather and soil and is probably less 
a function of variety, although it should be said that in Hawaii 
the Lahaina cane is always sweeter than Yellow Caledonia. It 
will at once be seen that the percentage of sugar developed 



SUGAR CANE 45 

in sugar cane has been exceeded in sugar beets and even in 
some of the saccharine sorghums. For this reason, it has been 
felt that possibly long-continued selection might result in an 
increase in the sucrose content. Some increase in the sugar 
content has been brought about in Java by a process of chem- 
ical selection. In this work seed sticks were selected from 
canes showing the highest percentage of sugar. So far as 
may be judged by experiments thus far carried on, however, 
there is little prospect of greatly increasing the sugar content 
of cane. The average sugar content of Louisiana cane is about 
13.5 per cent. The sugar content diminishes from the base 
to the tip of the cane. Since it is the common practice to use 
the upper part of the cane for seed purposes, certain experi- 
ments have been carried on to determine whether such prac- 
tice is calculated gradually to reduce the percentage of sugar in 
the cane. These experiments have indicated little, if any, 
advantage from planting the lower segments of cane over the 
use of the upper segments of the stalk. 

The extreme geographical limits of cane at present are 37° 
N. in Spain and 37° S. in New Zealand. The higher the tem- 
perature the faster the growth and the longer and thicker the 
internodes. This applies almost without exception in all sugar- 
producing countries. In Demerara, with an almost constant 
equatorial temperature, only 270 days are required from plant- 
ing to tasseling. In Hawaii, on the other hand, 500 days are 
required for the same stages of growth. The length of time 
required for sugar cane to reach maturity varies greatly in 
different parts of Hawaii according to altitude and the amount 
of rainfall and sunshine. In general, the variation is from 18 
months to 2^ years. 

On account of the cool winter weather in Louisiana, cane 
must be harvested in an immature condition. The juice is 
therefore impure, containing a high amount of reducing sugar 
and being relatively low in sucrose. The same condition, how- 
ever, is also found in equatorial regions where the tempera- 



46 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

ture is always hot and where the seasons show the least varia- 
tion. Under the latter conditions the growth is constant and 
the cane never comes to so complete a maturity as occurs on 
the borders of the Tropics where also the greatest purity of 
cane juice is obtained. 

Throughout the Tropics there is an almost universal sys- 
tem of nomenclature for the crops of cane as well as for many 
other tropical crops. The first crop from seed planting is called 
the plant crop, and subsequent crops obtained without replant- 
ing are called rattoon crops. In Java, most of the sugar cane 
crop is plant cane. In Louisiana, the crop is made up of plant 
cane and first rattoons. In Hawaii, the common practice is 
to harvest a plant crop and two rattoon crops. In Mauritius, 
three rattoon crops are taken, and in Cuba and the West In- 
dies it is customary to continue without replanting up to the 
fifth rattoon crop or in certain fields as long as 25 years or 
more. The number of crops taken without replanting is, of 
course, not determined by theoretical considerations of the 
possibility of the successful growth of cane after being cut, 
but strictly for economic reasons. In some localities the third 
rattoon crop is so light and the yield of sugar so low that it 
is more profitable to plow and replant than to allow the plant 
to remain for the production of a third rattoon crop. In a 
few localities in Hawaii, for reasons which are not at all ap- 
parent, sugar cane has continued to yield excellent crops 
without replanting for a period of 25 years. This would not 
be considered an unusual performance in Cuba and the West 
Indies. 

The optimum quantity of water for cane, either as rainfall 
or irrigation water, depends to a large extent on the physics 
of the soil, the rate of evaporation, and the farming system 
according to which the soil is handled. The rate of evapora- 
tion, as is well known, varies greatly in different localities and 
this naturally has much to do with the amount of water re- 
quired for the growth of cane. The optimum quantity of 



SUGAR CANE 47 

water for a crop of sugar cane in Louisiana is about 60 inches, 
in Demerara about 100 inches, and in Hawaii about 150 inches. 
There are many known cases of special adaptabihty of variety 
to climate ; for example, D. 74 Louisiana, Lahaina cane on 
irrigated lands in Hawaii, and Yellow Caledonia on unirri- 
gated plantations and at higher elevations in Hawaii. It has 
been fairly well shown that cane soils should have a high 
water-holding power and that on this account clays, lateritic 
soils, and alluvial soils are perhaps best for the growth of 
cane. 

The use of fertilizers in the production of sugar cane has 
received a great amount of attention in all cane-growing coun- 
tries. In Hawaii, a profit has been shown from the use of 
fertihzers even on soils which will produce 11 tons of sugar 
per acre, and naturally fertilizers give still more profitable 
returns on poorer soils. In Hawaii, the tendency now is to 
use more nitrogen and less potash than in former years. This 
change in formula came about as a result of extended experi- 
ence in which it was found that potash was not required to 
the extent which had previously been considered necessary. 
Lime is used extensively in cane production. In Hawaii, coral 
sand is much used for that purpose. It has generally been 
found that nitrogen should be apphed early in the growth 
of the cane. Nitrate of soda may easily be applied in solution 
in the irrigation water. This practice is followed on a number 
of Hawaiian plantations. No specific effect has ever been 
shown of fertilizers on the composition of cane juice. The 
mud press cake is usually returned to the soil and on some 
of the Hawaiian plantations all the molasses from the mills 
is returned to the soil as fertilizer. Sugar cane causes little 
soil exhaustion if all trash is returned to the soil. In Hawaii 
and in many of the cane-growing countries, the practice was 
adopted years ago of burning all cane leaves and tops left in 
the field after harvesting. In recent years, this tendency was- 
further extended in Hawaii where the cane fields were burned 



48 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

off before harvesting, thus destroying all material which would 
otherwise have been returned to the soil and leaving nothing 
but the bare stems standing. This practice was adopted on 
account of the supposed reduction which is brought about in 
the cost of harvesting. With the exception of two or three 
plantations no effort was made at all within recent years on 
any of the Hawaiian plantations to conserve the humus of 
the soil, to practice green manuring in any way or to adopt any 
system of rotation. This deceptive and suicidal system of 
robbing the soil finally led to so-called physiological diseases 
and diminished yields which require serious attention. It was 
soon found that the so-called senility of the Lahaina cane was 
due entirely to the destruction of the humus in the soils and 
the consequent deterioration of the physical condition of the 
soil. By returning to the soil the natural cane trash, together 
with legumes and other weeds which were allowed to grow in 
the interval between harvesting and plowing, it was found 
possible to bring the yield back to standard and to demon- 
strate that the so-called senility was not a disease of cane 
but merely an indication of poor soil management. In Java, 
Louisiana, Mauritius, British India, Egypt, and certain other 
cane-producing countries, some form of rotation is practiced. 
No rotation system, however, has been adopted in Cuba, Ha- 
waii, Trinidad, or Fiji, but in Hawaii the present tendency 
to plow under the cane trash and to secure as much green 
material as possible from a quick growing legume, such as 
Crotalaria or Jack bean, may be said to take the place of the 
regular system of rotation. 

According to results thus far obtained, it appears that in 
Hawaii about i,ooo pounds of water are required for the pro- 
duction of a pound of cane sugar. The average application 
of irrigation water in Hawaii is about 75 inches in a dis- 
trict where the normal rainfall is 25 inches. Outside of the 
districts of heavy rainfall cane is irrigated in nearly all parts 
of cane-producing countries, On the lowlands near the sea- 



SUGAR CANE 4d 

shore the irrigation waters usually contain a certain amount 
of salt. It has been found that water may be safely used for 
irrigation if it contains no more than lOO grains of salt per 
gallon. 

In plowing cane lands quite different practices prevail in 
different countries. In Poona, India, the land is plowed with 
mold-board plows drawn by ox teams and the depth of plow- 
ing is lo to 12 inches. In Cuba, the cane soils are likewise 
plowed with ox-drawn mold-board plows but usually not to 
a depth exceeding 8 or lo inches. In Hawaii, steam power is 
chiefly used in plowing cane soils and the depth of plowing 
is from 12 to 24 inches, usually about 16 inches. It has been 
definitely shown that deep plowing is beneficial. Moreover, 
as it has recently been demonstrated to the satisfaction of 
plantation managers that cane trash and green manuring crops 
are necessary for a continued high yield of sugar cane, the 
managers have adopted special plows for turning under the 
cane trash and legumes and weeds. 

As is generally known, even to those who have never visited 
cane plantations, cane seed means segments of the stalk of 
the cane cut in lengths of 8 to 10 inches. These sticks of seed 
cane are commonly cut from the top of the cane and are 
planted in furrows or holes, mostly in furrows. They are 
usually dropped in a continuous row at the bottom of the fur- 
row or sometimes a double row, as, for example, in Louisiana. 
These rows are from 3 to 7 feet apart. The amount of seed 
required per acre varies from i^ to 4 tons, according to the 
distance between the rows and whether or not two rows of 
sticks are dropped in each furrow. In Louisiana, seed cane 
has to be preserved over winter by burying in the ground. 

On irrigated plantations, weeding must be done by hand and 
not by machines, for horse or power machines would spoil or 
fill up the furrows and thus prevent irrigation. Various kinds 
of cultivators, row straddlers, and other implements are used 
on nonirrigated cane. Recently in Hawaii, particularly in the 



50 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

districts of heavy rainfall, the use of arsenite of soda has been 
adopted in destroying weeds. This chemical method of de- 
stroying weeds is much cheaper than mechanical methods and 
in seasons of almost continuous rain can be applied with- 
out injuring the soil, whereas cultivation of the muddy soil 
would not only not destroy the weeds but would injure the 
texture of the soil. The practice of stripping the lower leaves 
from the cane at two or three periods during the growth of 
the crop has been practiced quite commonly on some of the 
Hawaiian plantations and elsewhere, but the results show that 
this practice is of doubtful value. Cane leaves by analysis as 
well as by field experiments have been shown to have large 
value in nitrogen and humus for the maintenance of soil fer- 
tility. 

The harvesting season for cane varies in different countries. 
It extends over a rather long period in Hawaii, commonly from 
December to the following September. In Louisiana, the har- 
vesting season extends from October to January. The tas- 
seling of cane marks the end of growth. Cane may, however, 
be allowed to stand for at least six months after tasseling be- 
fore any loss of sugar occurs. There is a great variation in 
the yield of cane per acre in different countries, the limits of 
variation being perhaps 6 and 120 tons. In Louisiana, the 
yield is about 20 tons, in Java about 40, and in Cuba about 17. 
Hawaii has perhaps the highest yield. The average yield of 
sugar per acre in Hawaii is 4^ tons and the average yield of 
cane is about 50 tons. In Hawaii, yields of 15 tons of sugar 
per acre have been obtained in localities where the soil and 
climatic conditions are especially favorable. The number of 
tons of cane required to produce a ton of sugar naturally de- 
pends on the percentage of sugar in the juice and purity of 
the juice. In Hawaii, from 8 to 10 tons of cane are required to 
produce a ton of sugar. 

Thus far no successful cane harvester has been devised, 
although repeated efforts have been made to perfect a machine 



SUGAR CANE 51 

which would economically harvest cane and save a great part 
of the hand labor required in this operation. Cane is therefore 
cut with a cane knife and is carried to the mill in special cane 
cars on permanent or portable tracks, in water flumes, by^ox 
carts, in canals, especially in Demerara and Straits Settlements, 
or on aerial cables. 

In most modern sugar mills cane is crushed and the juice is 
expressed in three-roller-units. In each unit the rollers are so 
placed that their centers are at the angles of an isosceles tri- 
angle. The rollers are commonly 30 by 60 inches, or 34 by 78 
inches, are made of steel, and are variously grooved and 
ridged. Sugar mills may be 9, 12, or 15 roller mills, that is, 
contain a series of 3, 4, or 5 three-roller-units. These 
rollers are often preceded by a forced feeding device and a 
shredder or crusher. It has been found in Hawaii that a 12- 
roller mill with rollers 30 by 60 inches would treat 50 tons of 
cane per hour. The pressure on the upper roller varies from 
200 to 400 tons in different mills and the surface of the rollers 
revolves at a speed of 16 to 25 feet per minute. 

Another method for extracting sugar is the diffusion process. 
This process depends upon the principle of osmosis. The 
method has been adopted on many plantations in different 
countries and is still in operation. In extracting sugar by 
this method cane is cut into thin slices about 1-20 inch thick. 
The juice is then allowed to diffuse into pure water or into 
dilute juice in a series of vessels. While this method, as 
just stated, is still in use, it is for the most part in operation 
only on small plantations. At the annual meeting of the Ha- 
waiian Sugar Planters' Association in November, 191 5, some 
interest was manifested in experiments with this method in 
Hawaii and one manager stated that a large plant would soon 
be installed to give the method a thorough test. 

By the usual process of sugar extraction, the juice from the 
crushed cane is at once heated to a temperature of 190° to 
200° F. to clarify it. Lime is added to the juice at the same 



S3 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

time to assist the process of clarification. Sulphur, phosphoric 
acid, and other chemicals have also been used for the same 
purpose. The purpose of adding lime is to precipitate vari- 
ous impurities out of the juice. After this process of clarifi- 
cation the juice is at once filtered in large filter presses for 
the purpose of removing the mud and the precipitated im- 
purities. The juice is then boiled in a multiple series evaporat- 
ing apparatus to the consistency of sirup. It contains in that 
stage about 55 per cent, solids in solution. The sirup is then 
boiled in vacuum pans until it is condensed to the point where 
it separates into crystalline sugar and uncrystallizable mo- 
lasses. The w^hole mass at this stage is called massecuite. The 
crystallized sugar is then separated from the molasses by cen- 
trifugals, the sugar crystals being caught on a fine wire gauze 
strainer with 400 to 500 meshes to the inch, while the mo- 
lasses is thrown out by centrifugal force. The crystallized 
sugar is removed from the centrifugal and at once packed for 
export as raw sugar. 

The machinery concerned in the manufacture of sugar has 
reached a stage of great elaboration and of striking perfec- 
tion. The whole process is a continuous one from the time the 
cane arrives at the mill until the sugar is sewed up in the bags. 

Molasses resulting from the manufacture of cane sugar 
varies greatly in composition but contains on an average about 
25 per cent, water; 50 per cent, sugars (40 per cent, sucrose 
and 10 per cent, glucose and reducing sugars), 15 per cent, 
organic material (nonsugar), and 10 per cent. ash. The low- 
est percentage of reducing sugar occurs in Hawaii and the 
highest in Demerara and Louisiana. The chief constituent of 
the ash of molasses is potash in the form of a sulphate. In 
fact, sulphate of potash constitutes about 4 per cent, of the 
molasses. The amount of molasses obtained in the manufac- 
ture of sugar is about 20 per cent, that of the sugar in Hawaii 
and 40 per cent, that of the sugar in Demerara. Waste mo- 
lasses is used in making denatured alcohol and rum, as a fuel 



I 



SUGAR CANE 63 

along with bagasse in boiler furnaces, and as a fertilizer. As 
a stock feed, waste molasses must be used with certain restric- 
tions for the reason that the high content of sulphate of potash 
causes digestive troubles and even more serious physiological 
disturbances. When molasses is used as a fertilizer the ash is, 
of course, directly beneficial since it contains a high per- 
centage of sulphate of potash and the sugars in molasses per- 
haps serve as food for nitrogen-gathering bacteria. 

Bagasse as it comes from the last battery of rollers contains 
sometimes as low as 40 per cent, water but usually 45 to 50 
per cent. Bagasse makes a satisfactory fuel for boilers with 
or without further drying. In fact, on most plantations 
bagasse constitutes the chief fuel used in sugar mills. 

Java has made a greater scientific contribution than any 
other country to the whole subject of sugar cane, including 
field culture, chemistry, manufacture, diseases and insect pests, 
and selection of cane. The scientific investigation of sugar 
cane in Java is under government supervision. In Hawaii, on 
the other hand, the Sugar Planters' Experiment Station is a 
private institution supported entirely by assessments on the 
sugar plantations of Hawaii and controlling absolutely the re- 
sults of its investigations. Most of the publications of the 
experiment station of the Hawaii Sugar Planters' Association 
are not available except to members of the Association and 
certain libraries and other institutions. 

The production of beet sugar passed that of cane sugar in 
1883 and maintained its lead until recently. Sugar and mo- 
lasses are also obtained from various other sources, espe- 
cially sorghum, a considerable variety of palms, maple, etc., 
but all sources of sugar except sugar beet and sugar cane are 
of very minor importance. 

The most recent available statistics on cane sugar showed 
the following annual production : Cuba, 3,000,000 tons ; Brit- 
ish India, 2,534,000 tons; Java, 1,591,000 tons; Hawaii, 612,- 
000 tons ; Porto Rico, 364,000 tons ; Argentina, 304,000 tons ; 



54 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Louisiana, 293,cxx) tons; Mauritius, 271,000 tons; Queensland, 
263,000 tons ; Philippine Islands, 235,000 tons ; Brazil, 228,000 
tons; Formosa, 213,000 tons; Peru, 212,000 tons; Mexico, 
143,000 tons; British Guiana, 114,000 tons; Fiji, 112,000 tons; 
Dominican Republic, 87,000 tons; and lesser amounts in the 
various other cane-producing countries. 

The methods of cultivation and manufacture of sugar vary- 
greatly in different countries. Sugar manufacture may be car- 
ried on in central cooperative mills patronized by small planters 
or in mills owned by corporations to which cane is furnished by 
independent growers or in mills owned by companies which 
raise all their cane on owned or leased land or by several other 
systems of organization. The mill company contracts for buy- 
ing cane vary greatly in different countries and with different 
plantations in the same country. Where the plan of pay- 
ing for cane on a cash basis is determined by the price of 
sugar, the amount received by the homesteader or small cane 
grower varies from 48 per cent, in Hawaii to 70 per cent, in 
Porto Rico. Another method of paying for cane in Hawaii 
consists in a flat rate price of about $4 per ton for the sugar 
cane. This contract removes all possibility of the small grower 
making a profit from his operations. Contracts for cane buy- 
ing vary in other particulars from fairness to various degrees 
of unfairness up to a practical condition of peonage. The com- 
plaint which most small growers make about cane-buying con- 
tracts, aside from the obvious fact that they cannot make a 
profit according to the terms of contract, is that the contracts 
are ordinarily stated in such involved legal phraseology as to 
be practically unintelligible to the average man and always am- 
biguous. For the most part, these contracts leave certain 
points to be determined by the sugar mill company. 

Cane sugar is shipped from the producing countries either as 
raw or refined sugar. Java does its own refining, while Cuba 
and Hawaii ship nearly all their sugar in the raw condition 
Just as it comes from the centrifugals. 



SUGAR CANE 55 

Modern methods described above are not everywhere in use 
in the manufacture of cane sugar. In India, for example, cane 
is crushed by wooden rollers with ox power, the juice is boiled 
in open pans, and the process results in the production of gur 
or jaggery, which goes into local trade in hard crystalline 
masses weighing 50 to 75 pounds. 



CHAPTER VII 
COCONUTS 

The coconut (Cocos nucifera) is a native of the Malay Ar- 
chipelago and Africa. It has been carried accidentally and 
intentionally to all parts of the Tropics and subtropics where 
it may now be found growing especially along the seashore, 
but occurring also up to an elevation of 2,000 feet. The coco- 
nut is one of the most graceful and beautiful of the palm 
tribe of trees. It commonly reaches a height of 50 to 80 feet 
but often attains a considerably greater height. The trunk is 
slender and never straight. It is usually swollen and bottle- 
shaped at the base. The roots are very numerous and long 
and fibrous. The peculiar leaning or almost reclining habit of 
the trunk of the coconut palm seems to be one of the natural 
characteristics of the tree and readily distinguishes it from the 
habit of growth of most other palms. The leaning habit is 
not caused by winds for the reason that, in any grove of coco- 
nuts, trees may be found leaning with the wind, directly 
against the wind, and in all other directions without any ap- 
parent order or preference. In many cases the trunks lean 
as much as 15° away from the perpendicular and in the case 
of very tall trees this must cause a great strain upon the 
fibrous roots. Notwithstanding the height of coconut trees and 
the fact that all of the leaves are confined to a large cluster 
at the tip of the trunk, the trees are seldom injured by winds 
except in the case of the most violent typhoons or hurricanes. 

The graceful, pinnate leaves of the coconut are 6 to 12 
feet long and 18 inches or more in width. The flowers ap- 

56 



COCONUTS 57 

pear in a large compound spadix and, as in the case of many- 
other palms, are at first inclosed in a spathe. 

The coconut is one of the world's most important economic 
plants. Its uses are almost innumerable. The nut yields co- 
conut oil, copra, coconut meal, coir, desiccated coconut, co- 
conut milk, and hard shells used in making utensils, and a fine 
quality of charcoal. By tapping the inflorescence before the 
spathe opens one obtains a sweet liquid called toddy, which 
on evaporation yields a crude sugar known as jaggery. More- 
over, the leaves yield fiber, paper-stock, material for making 
hats, baskets, mats, thatching, etc. The cross-laced fiber at 
the base of the leaves is used as sieves and for other pur- 
poses by natives. The trunk of the coconut tree is used for 
making walking sticks, for construction purposes, as dug- 
out canoes, and in various other ways. 

Estimates of the world's total production of coconuts are 
not very complete and are therefore somewhat unreliable. 
Probably 50 per cent, of the total amount of coconuts pro- 
duced is consumed in the producing countries. The world's 
trade in copra at the present time is about 700,000 tons an- 
nually and is increasing in amount quite rapidly. There are 
about 3,500,000 acres in coconuts with an average of perhaps 
100 trees per acre. Of this area about 800,000 acres are in 
Ceylon, 500,000 in the Philippines, 500,000 in tropical South 
America, 380,000 in British India, 370,000 in Central America, 
270,000 in the small islands of the Pacific, 250,000 in New 
Guinea and Straits Settlements, and smaller areas in Java, 
Sumatra, Mauritius, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Seychelles, Re- 
union, Siam, Cochin China, the West Indies, including Cuba, 
Jamaica, Porto Rico, etc., and tropical America. 

The question of coconut varieties is much muddled. There 
are, perhaps, 25 or 30 varieties. Simons used such descriptive 
variety names as green, yellow, black, red, heavy, and globular. 
Other writers on coconuts have used merely geographical 
names for varieties, such as Coromandel, Malabar, Maldive, 



58 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Siamese, Samoan, Ceylon, Pemba, etc. Until more work 
has been done in the identification of coconut varieties, it is 
quite useless to present elaborate descriptions of these varie- 
ties. 

The coconut is essentially a tropical plant and thrives best 
inside the boundaries of the true Tropics from sea level up 
to an elevation of about 2,000 feet. It appears to thrive 
equally well in almost any kind of soil, even in coral sand 
and in brackish water. In fact, it grows well along the actual 
fringe of the sea beach where its roots stand in salt water. 

For planting, mature nuts from trees which regularly yield 
a heavy crop are selected. The nuts are held for thorough 
curing for a period of 2 to 4 weeks before planting. They 
are then planted in rows 4 to 5 feet apart in the nursery and 
barely covered with earth. The nuts are laid on one side and 
mulch of straw or leaves may be placed over the germinating 
nuts. The coconut nursery should have some shade for the 
best results. Germination requires 3 or 4 months and about 
90 per cent, of the nuts germinate. The seedlings are trans- 
planted at about one year of age. The nuts are often planted 
in the field without the use of a nursery but the care required 
during the germination is much more expensive in the field 
than in the nursery. The planting distances vary greatly in 
different localities. As a rule, in commercial coconut planta- 
tions, the number of trees per acre ranges from 50 to 150. 
In some old coconut groves there are 300 or even 400 trees 
per acre. With such close planting, however, the results are 
not at all satisfactory. 

The growth of coconut trees is much improved and earlier 
fruiting is promoted by clean cultivation or intercropping with 
sweet potatoes, soy beans, or some other suitable crop during 
the first two or three years. The trees in plantations treated 
in this manner develop a much larger trunk and come into 
bearing two or three years sooner than would be the case in 
a neglected or uncultivated plantation. After coconut plan- 




Crown of Coconut Tree with Nuts in Various Stages of Growth 



COCONUTS 59 

tations come into bearing the use of cover crops and light ap- 
plications of potash and phosphoric acid will help to maintain 
the yield. Some irrigation may be necessary until the young 
trees have become thoroughly established with roots reaching 
down to water. The growth periods of the coconut are about 
as follows : Leaves with the mature pinnate form appear at 
15 months, a beginning of a trunk appears at 4 years, the first 
flowers are commonly observed at the age of 5 years, and the 
first fruit at 6 years. These figures perhaps represent the 
average conditions in the Tropics at sea level. In higher alti- 
tudes or latitudes the growth is slower. Even in the Tropics 
most trees do not begin to bear on a commercial scale until 
they reach the age of 7 to 10 years. In some extra tropical 
localities, however, as for example, in southern Florida, coco- 
nuts may begin to bear at the age of 4 or 5 years. The reasons 
for this early maturity are not well understood. 

Flowering and fruiting of the coconut goes on almost con- 
tinuously and ripe nuts are to be had every month of the year. 
The nuts are usually picked every two months, but in Zanzibar 
only four pickings a year are commonly made. It is not rare 
to find individual trees which mature 15 nuts per month or 
at the rate of 180 nuts a year. I have seen a yield of 200 
nuts from one tree in 12 months, but one cannot depend upon 
more than 100 nuts per tree per year even under the best con- 
ditions. In fact, the commercial average is probably not above 
50 nuts for each mature tree per year. On poor, thin, and 
sandy soils the average may be reduced to 15 to 20 nuts per 
year. The coconut comes into full bearing at the age of 18 to 
20 years. 

The size of the coconut varies according to variety. De- 
pending upon the variety, from 3,500 to 7,000 nuts are re- 
quired for the production of a ton of copra. A ton of copra 
in turn will yield 1,200 pounds of coconut oil and 800 pounds 
of coconut meal or poonac. In the experience of the Ceylon 
planters, 165 pounds of coir fiber are obtained from every 



60 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

i,ooo nuts. The meat of the fresh coconut contains about 
53 per cent, of water and 30 per cent, of oil, and dried copra 
contains 2 to 7 per cent, of water and 64 to 71 per cent, of oil. 

Coconuts are husked by hand by means of a sharp steel pike 
or similar instrument securely fastened in a block of wood. 
The coconut is grasped firmly in the hands and driven upon 
the pike after which a wrenching motion splits off a portion 
of the husk. Two or three motions of this sort are sufficient 
to remove the husk from the nut. An experienced laborer 
will husk 1,200 to 2,500 nuts per day. The husked nut is 
easily broken into two hemispheres by a sharp blow with a 
heavy dull knife, either a cane knife or machete. The nuts 
are then dried in the sun or in kilns. About one-half of 
the world's supply of copra is dried in the sun. Within a few 
hours the meat curls away from the hard shell and is easily 
removed. The sun drying process requires 2 to 4 days, while 
artificial driers may produce the same result within 3 to 20 
hours. Experiments are now being made with several kinds 
of desiccating apparatus in an attempt to hasten the process 
of drying and thus to produce a better quality of product. 
The dried coconut meat is the copra of commerce. In the 
ordinary sun-drying processes the copra obtained is a dark 
brown or black product of extremely uninviting appearance. 
An almost white copra, resembling the desiccated, shredded 
coconut in color, may be obtained by the use of artificial driers. 

Coconut oil was formerly used chiefly in the manufacture 
of soap and candles. Methods of purifying the oil have been 
devised and it is now extensively used for human food, espe- 
cially in coconut-butter, also called nut-butter, vegetaline, and 
palmine, a product extensively manufactured in Marseilles 
and elsewhere since 1897. Both the solid and liquid portions 
of coconut oil are also used in various cooking oils and mar- 
garines. Coconut oil is yellow or pale in color and the best 
and clearest grade of the oil comes from Malabar. At tem- 
peratures below 74° F. the oil becomes solid. The oleic and 



COCONUTS 61 

stearic portions of the oil may easily be separated as is the 
case with many other oils. Coconut oil is obtained from 
the dried copra by pressure. For food purposes only cold 
pressed oil is used, while hot pressed oil is used for soaps, 
candles, and various other purposes. The present methods 
actually recover 60 to 65 per cent, of the weight of copra in 
oil. The new style of hydraulic presses leave only about two 
per cent, of the oil in the pressed cake or poonac. Coconut 
meal usually contains 8 to 12 per cent, of fat and 18 or 19 
per cent, of protein. It is an excellent stock feed, as shown by 
the numerous experiments which have been carried on in the 
United States and elsewhere. ^ In feeding experiments in India, 
where coconut meal is called poonac, equally satisfactory re- 
sults have been obtained. 

The world's supply of desiccated shredded coconut comes 
almost entirely from Ceylon. The supply of this product is 
now about 31,500,000 pounds annually, and a large percentage 
of it is used in the United States. In making desiccated 
shredded coconut the best mature nuts are selected. These 
nuts are cured for about three weeks, then cracked, and the 
meat removed while fresh. The brown skin on the surface 
of the meat is scraped off, the meat is immediately shredded, 
and then dried in hot-air ovens at a temperature of 160° F. 
The product is sorted according to the length of the shreds or 
strips and is packed in tea boxes or other packages containing 
about 130 pounds each. One laborer will crack about 5,000 
nuts a day. 

In preparing coir, or coconut fiber, the husks are retted in 
tanks of water or steamed until they become soft. They are 
then beaten and dried and the broken powdery waste material 
is separated from the coir fiber by hand or machinery. The 
fiber is carded by special machines, washed, dried, again 
carded, this time by hand, sorted, and baled. Coir fiber from 
old nuts is dark brown, but from young nuts the fiber is lighter 
in color. It cannot be artificially bleached without causing 



62 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

great injury to the fiber. Coir is extremely resistant to salt 
water. For this purpose it has been much used for ship 
cables. It is also extensively used for ropes, mattresses, cush- 
ions, door mats, coarse hall matting, nose bags for horses, 
bags for oil presses, yarn for weaving into finer matting, 
brushes, etc. The coconut waste obtained in cleaning the coir 
fiber is used as bedding for animals, as packing material for 
nursery stock, as insulating material for cold storage, and 
for other purposes. Coir fiber brings from 2^/2 to 6 cents a 
pound. 

By incising or bruising the flower spadix about 3 or 4 months 
after the spathe appears and before it has opened, a consider- 
able quantity of toddy is secured containing 14 per cent, of 
sugar. This sweet juice may easily be fermented into arack, 
or vinegar, or may be condensed by boiling into jaggery or 
raw sugar. 

Of the territoiy belonging to the United States, the Philip- 
pines are most active in the production of coconuts. In the 
Philippine Islands, there are at present about 30,000,000 ma- 
ture coconut trees and 20,000,000 young trees. Interest in 
the coconut industry in the Philippines is active and further 
planting is going on quite rapidly. About 175,000 tons of 
copra annually, or one-fourth of the world's output of copra, is 
produced in the Philippines. In southern Florida coconuts 
are being planted by the thousand. Little interest, however, 
has thus far been taken in them as a commercial crop. For 
the most part they are considered merely as ornamentals. 
They come into bearing early, however, in Florida, and the 
time is coming when the product of these trees will be of 
sufficient importance to attract the attention of coconut buyers. 

The coconut is one of the hardiest and longest-lived crops 
in the whole list of agricultural products. After the trees have 
become mature they require little or no attention except for 
the occasional application of fertilizer. On account of the 
profits which have been obtained from coconut plantations in 



COCONUTS 63 

full bearing, a wide commercial interest has been manifested 
in further planting. A great increase in the total supply of 
coconuts has thus been brought about, but limits of the demand 
for coconuts seem not yet to have been approached. The price 
of copra has steadily risen even with the increased supply. 
So far as may be judged by present appearances, especially 
taking into consideration the additional modern uses of coco- 
nut and its products, the coconut industry seems to be about 
as safe and secure from a financial standpoint as any tropical 
agricultural industry. There is one serious enemy of the 
coconut which has wrought havoc in Cuba, Jamaica, and a 
few other localities in the West Indies. This is the bud rot, 
which has been shown to be a bacterial disease. Whole groves 
of coconuts have been annihilated by this disease within 3 or 
4 years, and Cuba perhaps has suffered most severely from 
the disease. It appeared seriously in Cuba about 35 years 
ago and its progress has caused the almost complete disap- 
pearance of coconuts from the island of Cuba except in the 
Baracoa district of the extreme eastern end of the island. 
In 1906, Cuba was the main source of supply of coconuts for 
the United States. At present, the Baracoa district furnishes 
10,000,000 to 15,000,000 nuts annually for the American trade. 
An indication of the importance of the coconut industry may 
be obtained from the mere casual consideration of the United 
States imports of coconut products. In 1914, the United 
States imported 60,000,000 pounds of copra, 58,000,000 pounds 
of coconut oil, and unshelled coconuts to the value of $1,800,- 
000. These unshelled coconuts were largely used in the retail 
trade and in the manufacture of desiccated shredded coconut. 



CHAPTER VIII 

BEVERAGES 

Of the large list of plant substances used in tropical coun- 
tries for preparing beverages only a few have attained com- 
mercial importance. These are coffee, tea, cacao, mate, and 
kola nuts. There are many other tropical plants which fur- 
nish beverages, used on account of their flavor or as stimu- 
lants, but for the most part they are consumed only by natives 
of tropical countries and are not prepared on a commercial 
scale. In the United States the only tropical beverages used 
in considerable quantities are coffee, tea, and cacao. Coffee 
stands at the head of the list in commercial importance, but 
in recent years the consumption of tea is increasing in the 
United States. At first green teas were preferred but recently 
the demand for black teas is increasing. 

COFFEE 

There are several species of coffee of which the berries are 
used in preparing the familiar breakfast beverage. Chief 
among these species are Coffea arahica, C. robusta, and C. 
liberica. The first named species is commonly known as Ara- 
bian coffee, a native of Abyssinia. The Liberian coffee is na- 
tive of west tropical Africa, while Coffea robusta comes origi- 
nally from the Congo. Coffee was apparently first used as a 
beverage in Aden and later in Constantinople. It appeared in 
Venice in 1615, in Paris in 1645, ^^d in London in 1650. The 
habit of drinking coffee spread rapidly in all towns in which 
the product was introduced. Until 1690 the world's supply 

64 



BEVERAGES 65 

of coffee came from Arabia and Abyssinia. Coffee was in- 
troduced from Mocha in Arabia to Java in 1690 and to Ceylon 
at about the same date. It was in Ceylon and Java that the 
first great development of the commercial coffee industry took 
place. Coffee production in Ceylon assumed enormous pro- 
portions between 1830 and 1875. Soon after the latter date a 
leaf blight caused by Hemileia vastatrix appeared and rapidly 
destroyed the whole coffee industry in Ceylon and India. The 
immense areas devoted to coffee were then gradually planted 
in tea and this was the beginning of the present huge tea 
industry of India and Ceylon, 

Coffee was brought to the West Indies in 1720 and to Rio 
de Janeiro in 1770. The relative commercial rank of different 
countries in coffee production has undergone many changes 
and fluctuations since the time when the whole supply of coffee 
came from Arabia and Abyssinia. At present the total area 
devoted to the production of coffee is about 5,000,000 acres, 
of which Brazil has 3,300,000. The world's production of 
coffee is about 2,500,000,000 pounds annually, of which Brazil 
produces 1,750,000,000 pounds. From the standpoint of the 
amount of coffee exported, coffee-producing countries stand in 
the following order: Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Guatemala, 
Salvador, Haiti, Mexico, Java, Porto Rico, etc. 

Coffee extends about 25° north and south of the Equator 
and from near sea level to an altitude of 6,000 feet. The 
plant thrives best, however, at altitudes between 500 and 
5,000 feet. Coffee will endure a quite heavy rainfall but does 
not thrive satisfactorily where the annual rainfall is less than 
50 inches. The extremes of rainfall between which coffee 
may be said to grow most satisfactorily are 50 and 200 inches. 

Coffee is planted either directly in place in the field or in 
nurseries from which seedlings are later removed for planting. 
Young seedlings in the nursery bed require some shade for 
their best development and are usually seasoned by removing 
to half shade for a short time before planting in the field. 



66 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

More frequently shade is furnished the young plants in the 
field until they become thoroughly established. The planting 
distance for coffee trees varies from 6 by 6 to 12 by 12 feet, 
according to variety, locality, and opinion of various planters. 
Coffee trees left to themselves will attain a height of 30 or 
40 feet. The trees are usually topped off at about 6 to 15 
feet. This operation not only keeps the tree from growing out 
of reach of the coffee pickers but seems to have the effect of 
increasing the bearing of the vigorous lateral branches. 

Coffee is one of the most beautiful of all the agricultural 
crops. The dark, glossy green leaves, thickly scattered along 
the horizontal branches, are always an attractive sight and 
when the great profusion of white flowers appears upon the 
upper surface of these branches the trees somewhat resemble 
the holly in a snow storm. Later, when the red cherries ap- 
pear, the coffee tree is also a very attractive sight. The coffee 
tree begins bearing at from 2 to 5 years. The bearing age 
occurs somewhat earlier in Asiatic countries than in Brazil. 
The full mature crop does not occur until about 7 to 10 
years. Under ordinary conditions the limit of profitable bear- 
ing age of coffee is about 30 years. The yield varies enor- 
mously in different countries and in different localities. Under 
favorable conditions the yield of dried coffee per acre ranges 
from 500 to 1,200 pounds. It may ordinarily be considered 
that I to 13^ pounds of dry coffee per tree is a satisfactory 
yield. 

The crimson fruit of the coffee is known as the coffee cherry 
and the seed as the coffee berry. From a botanical standpoint 
the fruit itself is a berry, but the trade names cherry and 
berry have become very firmly established and are so generally 
well known that there seems little reason for attempting to 
change the terminology. The cherries are pulped as soon as 
they are brought in from the field by the pickers. Numerous 
improvements have been made since the days of hand-pulping, 
until at present very efficient pulping machines are in use on 

( 




■^fc^Ur^'V'*..' 



Coffee Tree in Bloom in Costa Rica 



BEVERAGES 67 

all coffee plantations. The mucilaginous material left around 
the berries after the removal of the pulp is in turn removed 
by fermentation or soaking in water for a few hours. The 
berries are then dried in the parchment. The term parchment 
is applied to the tough, leathery skin surrounding the coffee 
berry. Inside of the tough parchment is a very thin, filmy 
layer of tissue closely adhering to the coffee berry and known 
as the silver skin. The parchment and silver skin are re- 
moved by coffee hulling machines and the berries are then 
thoroughly cleaned by winnowing. Coffee may be handled 
and sold either in the parchment or after hulling. For the 
most part, however, coffee is hulled before being shipped for 
the reason that hulling removes some of the useless material 
and makes a saving in freight. 

In the process of roasting, coffee loses from 15 to 20 per 
cent, in weight and gains from 30 to 50 per cent, in bulk ac- 
cording to the degree or extent of roasting. Roasted coffee 
has the following average composition: Water, i.i per cent.; 
protein, 14 per cent, (including 1.2 per cent, caffein) ; fat, 
14.5 per cent.; nitrogen-free extract, 45.8 per cent.; fiber, 19.9 
per cent. ; and ash, 4.7 per cent. About 25 per cent, of the 
total solids in coffee is soluble in water. 

The temperature used in roasting coffee and the length of 
the roasting period vary somewhat in different countries and 
in different grades of coffee. All coffee users who buy the 
unground roasted berry are familiar with the different shades 
of brown which are characteristic of different brands and 
grades of coffee. These browns range from almost black to an 
extremely light shade of brown. It has been found by experi- 
ence that in order to bring out the best flavor and aroma dif- 
ferent lengths of time are required for roasting different grades 
of coffee. Some require to be roasted nearly black, while 
others, particularly Hawaiian coffee, would be nearly ruined 
by overroasting. 

In the amount of coffee consumed, some of the most im- 



68 TRoAcAL AGRICULTURE 

portant coffee-drinking countries stand in the following order : 
United States, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, 
Switzerland, Norway, Russia, etc. The wholesale prices in 
New York for coffee of different grades in the last 15 years 
has ranged from 6^4 to 30 cents per pound. For many years 
the coffee market was so manipulated that a surprisingly large 
margin uniformly existed between the wholesale and retail 
price. The trade sorts of coffee from Brazil are commonly 
called Rio Nos. 1-9. From Venezuela we receive grades of 
coffee called La Guiara and Maracaibo, while coffees from 
Bolivia are commonly called Yungas, and from Hawaii, Kona 
and Hamakua. Mocha is a trade name applied to a pea berry 
coffee grown in various countries. It is obvious from this 
statement that the term Mocha does not in any sense indicate, 
that the coffee came from Mocha, Arabia. Pea berry is a 
term applied to a round-berried coffee obtained from cherries 
which produced only one berry. The ordinary coffee berry, 
as all coffee users know, has one flat side due to the fact that 
the ordinary coffee cherry contains two berries closely pressed 
together. Whenever the cherry contains only one berry that 
berry shows no flat side and is rounded somewhat in the form 
of a pea, thus giving occasion to the name, pea berry coffee. 
Java coffee is a trade name for coffee like the typical brand 
which is found in Java. From Ceylon we obtain Native 
Plantation, Liberian, and Mountain coffees and the coffees 
Avhich enter into trade from Abyssinia are called Harrar and 
Abyssinian. In addition to these few trade names there are 
also dozens of geographical names of various brands of coffee, 
while the trade names for coffee as a whole are almost in- 
numerable. Most coffees, like teas, are not composed of one 
strain but are blended by the use of coffees from several 
localities. 

The Liberian coffee is a considerably larger tree with larger 
leaves, much larger cherries, and a firmer pulp. This coffee has 
a poor aroma but is more resistant to the devastating leaf 



BEVERAGES 69 

blight and is therefore cultivated to some extent in Java, Cey- 
lon, and elsewhere. The Liberian coffee thrives at lower 
elevations than the common varieties of Arabian coffee. Cof- 
fea rohusta is another species of coffee which has recently 
come into some prominence as a rival of the Arabian and 
Liberian coffees for certain purposes. This species grows 
faster than the Liberian coffee and the leaves are thinner. 
Moreover, the branches have a more decided habit of drooping 
and the cherries occur in larger clusters. The cherries are 
smaller than is the case with the Liberian coffee but the ber- 
ries are about the same size. This species flowers the year 
round, is decidedly resistant to leaf blight, and the aroma is 
much better than that of the Liberian coffee. In Java, there 
are at present about 15,000 acres devoted to the cultivation of 
Liberian coffee. Sierra Leone coffee (Coffea stenophylla) 
was introduced into Ceylon in 1894. This species develops 
black cherries instead of the usual crimson cherries and pos- 
sesses an excellent aroma. Coffea exceisa is also under ex- 
periment in various coffee-producing countries, but its value 
has thus far not been established. 

The coffee industry of the United States is largely confined 
to Porto Rico and Hawaii. Porto Rico exports coffee to the 
value of about $8,500,000 annually and the industry is showing 
quite rapid progress. The improvement of the coffee industry 
of Porto Rico is due to better cultivation, higher prices, and 
the use of superior varieties. Little demand has been created 
in the United States for Porto Rican coffee, and practically 
all of it is sold in foreign countries. The export of Hawaiian 
coffee amounts to about 25,000 bags annually, with a value of 
$175,000. The prevailing prices for Hawaiian coffee have 
been relatively high in recent years, reaching 18 to 20 cents 
per pound wholesale. The prospects for the coffee industry 
in Hawaii are brighter than has been the case in former years. 
The Army has adopted Hawaiian coffee for use in Hawaii and 
the Philippines, 



70 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

TEA 

Tea is a beverage which ranks second only to coflfee in 
commercial importance and, in fact, is used in many countries 
far more extensively than coffee. The tea plant is called 
Camellia thea and the variety name viridis is used for Assam 
tea and the name bohea for China tea. The tea plant is a 
native of China, Japan, and India. The China tea is a low 
bush, while the Assam tea is taller, reaching even a height of 
40 feet and becoming a tree of large proportions if unpruned 
and left to itself. Tea has been cultivated in China and Japan 
since the dawn of history and in India since 1875. At that 
date the seriousness of the leaf blight of coffee had become 
apparent and the coffee growers began to experiment with 
tea. These experiments rapidly led to the general adoption 
of tea as a crop for replacing coffee in India and Ceylon. 

Tea requires a heavy rainfall for its most vigorous growth. ^ 
It thrives best in a rainfall of 90 to 200 inches. The Assam 
tea does best at low altitudes, while China tea gives satisfac- 
tory results at elevations up to 5,000 feet. 

Tea is propagated from seed planted either directly in the 
field or in seed beds from which the seedlings are later trans- 
planted in the field at distances of 4 by 4 or 5 by 5 feet. In 
commercial plantations tea is usually prevented from growing 
more than 5 feet high by repeated pruning. The first picking 
takes place about 3 years from the time of planting the seed 
and full bearing begins when the plants are about 6 years old. 
The crop of leaves continues unabated for 50 years or more. 
In fact, by means of severe pruning after a plantation has ap- 
parently almost run out, a renewed vigor may be reestablished 
for a considerably longer period. 

The yield of tea ranges from 200 to 1,000 pounds of cured 
leaves per acre, according to the number of flushes, the nature 
of the soil, the variety of tea, and the locality in which it is 
grown. In Ceylon, there are about 400,000 acres devoted to 




Tea Hedges in Yen do, Japan 



' : -3 




Field of Smooth Cayenne Pineapples in Hawaii 



BEVERAGES 71 

the production of tea and the exports from that country 
amount to 190,000,000 pounds of black tea annually. The 
total exports of tea from tea-producing countries are about 
810,000,000 pounds per year. Tea-producing countries stand 
in the following order from the standpoint of the amount 
of tea produced : British India, Ceylon, China, Dutch East 
Indies, Formosa, Japan, and Singapore. 

Tea leaves are picked from 10 to 25 times a year. In 
Ceylon a picking occurs every 10 to 12 days. Tea, like many 
other tropical plants, shows at intervals an unusually vigorous 
growth in which fresh leaves are developed very rapidly. 
These periods of unusually active growth are known as flushes. 
For the highest grades of tea only the tip of the actively grow- 
ing shoot and one or two of the youngest leaves are plucked. 
A few older and coarser leaves go into the cheaper grades. 
The tea leaves are brought from the field by pickers and at 
once undergo a withering process in the sun, in open sheds, or 
under the influence of low artificial heat for a period of about 
18 hours. The leaves are then rolled by hand or by machine, 
after which they are fermented in piles or in drawers for a 
period of 2 to 10 hours. The piles of tea are covered with 
a clean cloth wrung out in cold water. The appearance of a 
coppery yellow color in the leaves and the characteristic aroma 
indicate the time to stop the process of fermentation. The 
tea then goes at once into the drying or firing machines, where 
the leaves are completely dried by currents of hot air. The 
process just described produces black tea. 

Fermentation of the leaves is carefully avoided in making 
green tea. The fresh leaves on being brought in from the 
field are at once heated in a pan or are steamed until they wilt 
and are then put immediately into the drier. This process 
effectively prevents fermentation and consequently prevents 
the development of the dark color characteristic of black tea. 
Green teas, however, are not all green in color. In fact, they 
have no uniform color. Green teas usually show a gray or 



72 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

brown as well as a green color. On account of the lack of 
uniformity in the color of green teas it was formerly a widely 
prevalent custom to color green teas artificially with soap- 
stone, turmeric, gypsum, indigo, and other materials. This 
process was sometimes called facing the tea leaves. 

China produces both green and black tea, while Ceylon 
tea is almost all of the black sort. Oolong tea from Formosa 
is manufactured like green tea, except that it is allowed to 
ferment only slightly. Oolong tea therefore has the appear- 
ance of black tea and flavor of green tea. The Japanese 
manufacture two chief grades of green tea known as gyokuro 
and sencha and also a low-grade tea from old leaves known as 
bancha. 

As already indicated, the highest grades of both black and 
green teas are prepared from the terminal bud and the young- 
est leaves. In the order of quality, the grades of black tea 
from Ceylon and British India run as follows : Orange Pekoe, 
Pekoe, Pekoe-souchong, Souchong, Congon, and Dust. The 
green teas from China are commonly graded in the order of 
their quality as follows: Young Hyson, Hyson No. i. Hyson 
No. 2, Gunpowder, and Dust. Nearly all of these trade names 
are common Chinese words derived from the tea industry. 
The young flushing leaves of tea are covered with a fine gray 
pubescence which turns to an orange color during the process 
of curing. This pubescence is partly rubbed off the leaves 
during the process of handling but is sufficiently evident to 
give the term Orange Pekoe to a high-grade Pekoe tea. The 
presence of the pubescence in the tea is taken as an evidence 
of the fact that the tea is made of the youngest leaves. Brick 
tea, as made in China, is of two forms: That which is com- 
monly used in Tibet is made of old leaves and twigs with a 
glutinous substance added, while the Brick tea used in Russia 
is ordinary Dust tea pressed into bricks. 

In the list given above of tea-producing countries mentioned 
in the order of their importance only a few countries of great- 



BEVERAGES 73 

est importance as sources of tea were given. Tea is also a 
coramercial product in Natal, the Caucasus, Jamaica, Fiji, 
Java, the Andamans, Tonquin, Burma, etc. The importation 
of tea into the United States has fallen from 102,653,000 
pounds in 191 1 to 97,800,000 pounds in 1914. In the amount 
of their tea imports the first three countries are Great Britain, 
Russia, and the United States, in the order named. 

The United States has taken little part in the business of 
producing tea. It has been grown experimentally at Pine- 
hurst, South Carolina, and also in Hawaii. It is impossible, 
however, for us to compete with the cheap labor of China 
and India. While the planting and cultivation of tea requires 
no more hand labor than is customarily applied to fruit crops, 
the picking of the leaves is a tedious process of hand labor 
which would make the cost of production disproportionately 
high, except where labor is very cheap. From statistics 
prepared in recent years by tea companies in Ceylon, it ap- 
pears that the cost of production, plus the freight to London, 
is 8 to 14 cents per pound of tea. The wholesale prices of 
tea in New York in the past 10 years have ranged from 12 
to 39 cents per pound. This indicates only a narrow margin 
between the cost of production and wholesale price and shows 
quite clearly that any considerable increase in the cost of 
hand labor would necessarily involve an increase in the whole- 
sale price of tea in order to keep the industry in a prosperous 
condition. 

CACAO 

The cacao tree, being a native of the American Continent, 
was not known to the European world until sometime after 
the discovery of America. As compared with tea and coffee, 
its history as a commercial beverage is therefore relatively 
short. The importance of cocoa and chocolate, the two chief 
trade products derived from cacao is, however, increasing from 
year to year. 



74 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Cacao, known botanically as Theobroma cacao, is a native of 
the regions along the Orinoco and Amazon and of Central 
America. The tree normally attains a height of 15 to 40 feet. 
It bears large, oblong, rather thin, shiny leaves and large pods 
6 to 9 inches long of a red-gray or yellow color when ripe. 
The pods are ridged lengthwise and are variously covered with 
wartlike protuberances. Each pod contains from 20 to 45 
large seeds, or cacao beans, closely packed in a gelatinous mass. 
The pods are borne, for the most part, along the trunk of the 
tree or on the sides of the large branches. 

The cacao tree is considerably injured by temperatures 
below 60° F. It therefore does not thrive beyond 20° north 
or south of the Equator. The cultural requirements for 
cacao are very similar to those for coffee, but it must always 
be remembered that cacao is more sensitive to cold, drought, 
and wind. The rainfall requirement for cacao depends much 
upon the drainage and the physics of the soil. The limits of 
rainfall for good vigorous growth of cacao lie perhaps between 
60 and 190 inches per year. It is often stated that for the 
vigorous development of cacao the soil must contain an ample 
supply of potash and nitrogen and a medium amount of phos- 
phoric acid. This, however, is little more than a guess since 
few experiments have been carried out with fertilizers in the 
production of cacao. The tree is quite tolerant of salt and 
will grow even in brackish soil. 

The pod husks constitute 79 per cent, of the weight of the 
whole pod, while the seeds together with the pulp make up the 
remaining 21 per cent. An analysis of fresh cacao beans will 
show a water content of 37.6 per cent. ; proteids, 7.2 per cent. ; 
theobromin, 1.4 per cent.; caffein, o.i per cent.; fat, 29.3 per 
cent; glucose, i per cent.; starch, 3.8 per cent.; fiber, 8.1 per 
cent. ; cocoa red, pectin, and astringent matters, 8.7 per cent. ; 
tartaric acid, 0.6 per cent., and ash, 2.35 per cent. During 
the process of fermentation cocoa red, the coloring matter of 
cocoa and theobromin, the stimulant constituent of cocoa, are 




Trunk of Cacao Tree Bearing Ripe Pods 



BEVERAGES 75 

probably formed by the oxidation of a glucosid. At the same 
time, the essential aromatic oil appears and the bitterness dis- 
appears. The fermented and dried bean contains 6.3 per cent, 
water, 52.1 per cent, fat, 6.1 per cent, proteids, 6.8 per cent, 
carbohydrates, 1.7 per cent, theobromin, 6.3 per cent, cocoa 
red and astringent matters, 1.8 per cent, ash, and 18.9 per cent, 
cellulose. It is apparent from these figures that one-half the 
dry cacao bean is made up of cocoa fat or cocoa butter, which 
is extensively used in making chocolate, perfumes, and many 
pharmaceutical preparations. Cocoa fat is a yellowish-white 
fat with a melting point of 35° C. 

About 20 species of Theobroma are known, of which T. 
cacao and T. pentagona (usually considered a variety of T. 
cacao) are grown commercially. The cacao tree reaches full 
growth at 10 to 12 years. The red-fruited varieties have 
darker leaves, and the flowers and fruit are borne on the trunk 
or large branches as indicated above. There are three prin- 
cipal groups of the varieties of cacao, Criollo, Forastero, and 
Calabacillo. The Criollo group is quite superior in quality. 
The wall of the pod is soft and the round white beans are 
only slightly bitter. The Forastero group has a much harder 
pod and flat violet-colored beans. The Criollo varieties came 
originally from Venezuela, but are now cultivated in many 
tropical countries. A very smooth fruited subvariety of the 
Criollo group is known under the name Porcelaine. The For- 
astero group of cacaos is more variable. The fruit is usually 
yellow and the trees are more hardy than those of the Criollo 
group. The Forastero cacao, therefore, seems to be gradually 
taking the place of the better varieties even in Venezuela. 

For cacao plantations openings in forest or areas protected 
by windbreaks are commonly selected. Perhaps the best shade 
for the first three years of growth can be obtained by inter- 
planting with bananas, cassava, or pigeon peas. The usual 
planting distance for cacao is 9 to 20 feet apart both ways 
with perhaps 15 by 15 feet as the average spacing. In certain 



76 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

localities permanent shade has been used with success. For 
this purpose kapok, castilloa, hevea, coffee, etc., have served 
excellently well. The idea underlying this interplanting of 
cacao with other trees is to arrange the plantation in such a 
manner that at full growth the cacao will utilize all the space. 
The cacao beans are planted either in nurseries or directly in 
place in the field. The advantages are rather in favor of plant- 
ing in nurseries and in transplanting the seedlings for the rea- 
son that the young trees are more easily cared for during their 
first year of growth when close together in a well protected 
nursery than when planted at the usual spacing in the open 
field. Bud wood of superior varieties may be used for top- 
working old trees or inarching may be practiced with good 
success. These methods; however, have not come into use on 
commercial plantations. In a few instances grafted trees have 
borne as high as 30 pods each 25^ years after grafting. The 
permanent shade trees which are most commonly used for 
cacao are leguminous. Cacao is grown, however, without 
shade in Brazil, Grenada, St. Thomas, and several other locali- 
ties. If, however, leguminous shade trees are not used good 
tillage is required, otherwise profitable yields may not be ob- 
tained. Little systematic work has been done with fertilizers 
in the growth of cacao trees. In Dominica the best yields have 
been obtained from the use of mulch of leaves and grass. In 
pruning cacao, it has been found best to remove all suckers 
and diseased branches. In a few instances one sucker has 
been left near the base of the trunk, but this has proved to be 
a wrong practice. The removal and burning of dead branches, 
twigs, and diseased pods help greatly to prevent the spread of 
cacao diseases. 

Pods when ripe are removed with a knife or hook, leaving 
a clean wound.' The pods are then gathered and opened the 
same day or within three days at the outside. The contents 
of the pods are removed at once to the fermentation house. 
The cacao tree begins to bear at 3 or 4 yea.rs of age, and 



BEVERAGES 77 

the full yield is reached at about 7 or 8 years. The maximum 
yield occurs perhaps at about 12 years of age. The Criollo 
varieties, however, begin bearing at 5 years. The yield of 
cacao ranges from 100 to nearly 1,000 pounds per acre and 
500 pounds may be considered a good acre return. Individual 
trees sometimes bear as many as 400 pods, but an average of 
50 pods per trees is satisfactory. It requires about 15 pods to 
make one pound of cocoa. 

The fresh cacao beans as they are removed from the pod 
are large, somewhat flattened seeds about ^ inch in width. 
They are of an ivory white or delicate violet color. The beans 
are at once placed in boxes and covered with banana leaves or 
other suitable material. The boxes used for this purpose are 
of such size as to allow the beans to be packed in to a depth of 
6 or 7 feet. While held in these boxes the beans undergo a 
process of heating and of fermentation. They are transferred 
daily into other boxes for a period of 4 to 6 days in order to 
equalize the temperature throughout the mass of beans. Dur- 
ing this process the slimy pulp around the beans ferments into 
a vinegar-like liquid and flows away. During the process, also, 
the red color and the characteristic aroma develop in the beans. 
The fermentation process with cacao beans is, however, not 
adopted in all countries. In Ecua(^or, the beans are not fer- 
mented at all and are dried at once and packed for shipment. 
On some plantations the beans are washed after fermentation, 
but washing is hardly to be recommended since the beans lose 
flavor in this process. After fermentation, beans are dried 
m the sun or in an artificial drymg apparatus. On account of 
the trade demand for a rich red color in cacao beans, this 
color has been given to the beans on some plantations by 
the process called dancing and claying. In this process a 
small quantity of clay of a rich red color is sprinkled over 
the beans, after which the beans are trampled by the bare feet 
of natives. 

Loss of weight in fermenting and drying cacao beans is 



78 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

about 60 per cent. This gives a means of estimating the ap- 
proximate weight of the cured crop from the weight of the 
fresh beans. The brands of cacao which come into the market 
from Ecuador are commonly known as Balao, Arriba, Mach- 
ala, Manabi, and Esmeraldas. From Brazil we receive brands 
of cacao known as Bahia and Para, and from Venezuela come 
the Caracas, Maracaibo, and Cabello cocoas. The most impor- 
tant cocoa markets are Hamburg, Havre, London, Amsterdam, 
Lisbon, and New York. The wholesale Hamburg price for 
cocoa ranges from 12 to 24 cents per pound for various sorts 
of this product. 

The similarity in names in a number of tropical agricultural 
products has led to much confusion in the minds of readers 
not intimately acquainted with the Tropics. It may be well, 
therefore, to call attention to some of these terms which have 
caused confusion, particularly in connection with cacao prod- 
ucts. It should perhaps first be mentioned that cocoa butter 
is the fat of cacao bean and, therefore, differs utterly from 
coconut butter, a product manufactured from coconut oil. It 
is unfortunate that coconut has been frequently spelled cocoa- 
nut, thus causing further confusion with cocoa, one of the 
products manufactured from the cacao bean. The confusion 
has been worse confounded by the fact that the specific botani- 
cal name of cocain is coca and that kola nuts have been spelled 
indifferently cola and kola. The tree from which cocoa and 
chocolate are derived is properly known as cacao and the beans 
produced by the tree are usually known as cacao beans, 
although occasionally they are also called cocoa beans. There 
has also been considerable looseness in the use of the terms 
cocoa and chocolate. In preparing cocoa powder for use in 
manufacturing cocoa for drinking, a considerable part of the 
cocoa fat is removed by hydraulic pressure and the residue is 
treated with carbonates to produce a better suspension in 
water. Cocoa, as properly used, therefore means the ground 
mass obtained from the fermented and roasted cacao bean after 



BEVERAGES 79 

the removal of a considerable portion of the fat naturally con- 
tained in the bean. 

In manufacturing cocoa and chocolate, the dried beans are 
roasted at a temperature of 250° to 275° F. for a short time in 
rotary drums. The beans are then cracked and the skins re- 
moved by an air blast, after which the beans are groun'd into 
cocoa powder. Sweet chocolate consists of cocoa powder to 
which are added sugar, spices, starch, flavors, and other adul- 
terants. Chocolate, whether of the sweet or bitter sort, there- 
fore, contains all of the cocoa fat originally present in the 
bean. Plain or bitter chocolate is the firm mass obtained by 
grinding the fermented and roasted bean without removing 
any of the fat. Bitter chocolate is, therefore, merely the ground 
cacao bean without any further alteration, either by removal of 
the fat or by the addition of other substances, while cocoa is 
the original cocoa powder from which a part of the fat has 
been removed by pressure. 

The total exports of cacao beans from producing countries 
are about 260,000 tons annually. Of this amount the Gold 
Coast exports 65,500 tons, while other producing countries 
range in the following order : Ecuador, St. Thomas, Nigeria, 
Brazil, Trinidad, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Grenada, 
Lagos, Ceylon, etc. 

In territory belonging to the United States, cacao is grown 
to some extent in Porto Rico and the Philippines and experi- 
ments have also been made with cacao in Hawaii. Conditions 
for the growth of cacao seem to be quite favorable in Porto 
Rico and the Philippines. In Hawaii, on the other hand, there 
is little basis for a cacao industry for the reason that the 
continued prevalence of the trade winds appears to increase 
transpiration from the leaves to such an extent that they are 
unduly chilled and turn brown along the edges. The growth 
of cacao in Hawaii has not been satisfactory from a commer- 
cial standpoint, although an excellent quality of cacao has been 
produced in the neighborhood of Hilo. 



80 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

MATE 

Mate, or Paraguay tea, is a common South American drink 
prepared from the leaves of Ilex paraguayemis. This is a 
common bush in South America occurring in particular abun- 
dance in Brazil and Paraguay. The leaves of the bush are 3 
to 4 inches long, serrate, and somewhat resemble tea leaves. 
The crop is taken largely from wild plants, but is cultivated 
to some extent. Like coffee and tea, the beverage contains 
some caffein. The consumption of Paraguay tea in South 
America is enormous and there is a small export trade with 
Europe. Elsewhere the habit of drinking Paraguay tea has 
not taken root. 

Brazil is the chief producing country and exports about 140,- 
000,000 pounds of mate annually to Argentina. Paraguay ex- 
ports about 5,000,000 pounds of this product every year. In 
preparing the material, young twigs are cut from the bushes 
and thoroughly dried over a fire of aromatic wood, after 
which the dry leaves are beaten off, ground to a coarse powder, 
and packed for the market. There are three recognized grades 
of mate, the caa-cuys made from the partly expanded leaf 
buds, the caa-miri prepared from the unroasted leaf, and the 
caa-guaza prepared from roasted leaves and leaf stalks. 

KOLA NUTS 

The seeds of Cola acuminata are used to some extent in the 
preparation of a drink which carries a high content of caffein. 
The tree is a native of West Africa from Loango to Sene- 
gambia. It attains a height of 20 to 40 feet and bears warty 
pods 4 to 6 inches long with 4 to 10 white or pink seeds, which 
turn brown on drying. The seeds contain about 2^^ per cent, 
of caffein and some theobromin and are chewed or used as a 
beverage for the stimulating effect. The tree begins bearing 
at the age of about 6 or 7 years and yields two crops annually, 



BEVERAGES 81 

amounting in all from 500 to 70x3 pods, or about 75 pounds of 
kola nuts per tree. The planting distance for the kola nut is 
about 20 by 20 feet. In preparing the product for the trade, 
the pods are merely removed and the nuts dried in the sun. 
Considerable effort has been put forth to extend the use of 
the kola nuts as a beverage. Some hesitation must be felt, 
however, in recommending the use of such material on account 
of its high caffein content. In Europe the kola nut has been 
used to some extent with cacao in making a beverage. 

GUARANA 

The woody climber, known as Paullinia sorhilis, native of 
South America, particularly in Brazil, bears seeds which are 
used in the preparation of the beverage known as guarana. 
This woody climber bears flowers in axillary panicles and an 
ovoid fruit about the size of the grape, ripening its seed in 
October. The seeds are removed from the hard shell, washed, 
roasted about 6 hours, and then removed from the inside pa- 
perlike shells by beating. In preparing the beverage, the seeds 
are ground, moistened, made into a paste, rolled into cylinders, 
and dried. This material is then used in producing an infusion 
which is consumed as a beverage. The flavor somewhat re- 
sembles cocoa, but is bitter. The beverage is occasionally called 
Brazilian cocoa. It is used only in South America and chiefly 
by the Indians. The seeds contain about 4 per cent, of caffein 
and the beverage is highly stimulating. 



CHAPTER IX 

FRUITS AND NUTS 

Tropical fruits are gradually becoming more familiar ob- 
jects in the markets of the United States. Citrus fruits, 
bananas, and pineapples have for years been of nearly as gen- 
eral distribution as apples and peaches. Pomegranates and 
fresh figs are to be seen here and there in fruit markets and on 
the carts of the street venders. Preserved figs and dates may 
be obtained in any grocery store, and these products have be- 
come a part of the ration of a large percentage of our popula- 
tion. Occasionally, mangos and avocados make their way to 
the markets of larger cities, where they are sold mostly as 
luxuries. These fruits are not yet produced in sufficient quan- 
tity to bring the market price down below the level of luxuries. 
Avocados sell at retail for prices ranging from 15 to 75 cents 
which, like the price of the occasional mango which appears on 
the market, is too high to allow this fruit to be considered a 
regular part of the diet. Now and then one sees the sapodilla, 
or papaya, on the market, particularly in the Southern States. 
While the most of the tropical fruits, except bananas, citrus 
fruit, and pineapples, are still for the most part curiosities in 
the general market of the Northern States, a widespread inter- 
est is being awakened in tropical fruits and a taste for these 
fruits is being gradually developed. 

It is possible that larger quantities of these less familiar 
tropical fruits may reach the northerft markets with the use of 
cold storage. The only systematic experiments thus far car- 
ried on in the cold storage of tropical fruits have been con- 
ducted at the Hawaii Experiment Station. In these experi- 

82 



FRUITS AND NUTS 83 

merits it was found that most tropical fruits could be safely 
held for a period of i or 2 months at a temperature of 32° F. 
Some fruits can be held longer. For example, the vvaterlemon 
retains its flavor and texture for a much longer period and 
seems, in fact, not to be badly affected by cold storage for a 
period of 3 or 4 months. The use of cold storage makes it 
possible to pick pineapples, avocados, and mangos at a riper 
stage than would otherwise be possible. These fruits are easily 
injured in shipment, and, therefore, it has been customary to 
pick them while very firm and green in order to avoid losses 
as far as possible. By means of cold storage it will be an 
easy matter to handle these fruits without loss, even if they 
are picked only 2 or 3 days before the stage of complete ripe- 
ness. 

The discussion of tropical fruits in this chapter does not by 
any means include all edible tropical fruits. There are a great 
number of fruits in tropical countries which have never become 
known outside the Tropics and which never enter into com- 
merce. In fact, many of them never appear even on the local 
markets in the countries where they grow. They are known 
and eaten only by natives and by others who may occasionally 
visit tropical countries. The number of such fruits is so great 
and their economic importance so slight that their discussion 
in any adequate manner would unduly lengthen the present 
chapter. 

Questions may have arisen in the mind of the reader as to 
the behavior of our famihar temperate climate fruits in the 
Tropics. Little need be said on this subject. Apples, peaches, 
and pears, at least, at sea level, behave in a very erratic man- 
ner in tropical countries. Flowers, green fruit in all stages, 
and ripe fruit may be seen on a tree almost at any season of 
the year. A few apples and pears which have occasionally been 
produced at sea level in tropical countries are of poor flavor 
and texture. Some varieties of peaches do fairly well in so 
far as the flavor is concerned, but the yield is almost invari- 



84 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

ably low. At elevations of 3,000 to 5,000 feet, however, con- 
siderable success has been had in several tropical countries in 
growing apples, peaches, pears, plums, and cherries. Straw- 
berries and grapes thrive fairly well in nearly all tropical coun- 
tries but, for the most part, neither one of these fruits has 
acquired much commercial importance in any strictly tropical 
country. Considerable interest has been added to the study of 
tropical fruits within the past 15 or 20 years by the quite 
important developments which have taken place in Florida 
and southern California, particularly in Florida. Practically 
all of the well known tropical fruits, except perhaps bread- 
fruit, have been successfully grown to a bearing age in Florida 
and some of these fruits will doubtless acquire enough com- 
mercial importance to attract serious attention. This is, of 
course, particularly the case with avocados and mangos. 

BANANAS 

The banana is a native of India and southern China. It is 
a rapid-growing, herbaceous, treelike plant attaining a height 
of 4 to 25 feet, according to variety and location. The large, 
glossy, and graceful leaves have an even entire margin and 
attain a length of 2 to 6 feet and a width of i to 2 feet. The 
stem or false trunk is succulent and is composed of concen- 
tric layers, being really made up of the bases of leaf sheaths. 
When the plant reaches the flowering age a flowering stem 
rapidly grows upward from the bulb through the center of 
the trunk, appearing at the center of the crown of leaves and 
bearing several clusters of irregular flowers protected by large 
purple bracts which later fall off. The clusters of flowers pro- 
duce the "hands" of the future bunch of bananas. The male 
flowers appear near the tip of the flowering stem and later fall 
off, leaving the tip of the flowering stem quite bare. With the 
growing weight of the bananas, the fruiting stem turns down, 
becoming pendulous, while the individual bananas stand up- 




PopouLu Banana, a Hawaiian Vakiety To Be Eaten Baked 



FRUITS AND NUTS 85 

right. The base of the flowering stem is thus curved into a 
loop which forms a convenient hook by means of which the 
bunch of bananas may be held after removal from the stem. 
There are a few varieties of bananas in which the fruiting stem 
does not turn downward, but remains erect during the whole 
fruiting period. This is particularly true in the Fehi and 
Kusaie bananas. 

The flowering or "shooting" of the banana occurs about 7 
to 9 months from the time of planting. About 25^ to 4 months 
are required from the shooting stage to the development of 
the full-sized bananas ready for shipment. In the case of the 
Chinese banana the end of the flowering stem carrying the male 
flowers is cut off after the fruit has set. This operation, how- 
ever, is not necessary with the Jamaica banana. 

The banana is propagated by suckers which are usually from 
2 to 8 months of age. The suckers grow from the base of 
the parent stem and are readily detached by means of a mat- 
tock or cane knife. Cultivated bananas never bear seeds, with 
the exception of the Fehi banana and various supposedly wild 
species of banana. In these so-called wild forms and in the 
Fehi banana, as well as in the Manila hemp, which is a closely 
related species, the fruit contains a number of well developed 
black seed. 

In the West Indies, March is the favorite month for plant- 
ing bananas. In the case of the Chinese banana, the leaves 
are left on the sucker, but the leaves are cut off from the sucker 
of the Jamaica banana before planting. With reference to gen- 
eral cultural methods for bananas, it may be said that various 
systems have been adopted. In some localities a dust mulch is 
maintained. Other growers prefer a leaf mulch or use a sys- 
tem of green manuring. For the most part not more than 2 
or 3 suckers are left to grow about the mother plant. These 
suckers are always of different age and represent the coming 
generations of banana plants on a given plantation. The 
banana plant bears but once and is not renewed by growth from 



86 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the stump of the old plant, but by suckers attached to the base 
of the stump. 

The total time required from planting to the fruiting period 
ranges from 12 to 14 months. The first rattoon crop will ap- 
pear within 12 to 16 months later. The time required for the 
production of the first crop, or the rattoon crops, is much 
longer in the subtropical regions and at higher elevations. At 
Glenwood, Hawaii, it requires nearly 3 years from planting 
to produce a marketable bunch of bananas. The old leaves 
are usually not stripped off during the growth of the banana 
crop, but are allowed to droop and fall upon the ground as they 
gradually die. 

■■ Each banana trunk bears one bunch of bananas. Rarely 
2 or 3 smaller bunches are borne, especially in the case of the 
Chinese banana, but this is an unusual performance and may 
be almost considered in the nature of a curiosity. In harvest- 
ing the Jamaica banana, the trunk is cut off 5 or 6 feet from 
the ground and the bunch is caught as the trunk falls in order 
to prevent the bananas from being broken from the stem. The 
ground is plowed and replanted every 3 to 7 years. In some 
localities it is considered necessary to replant at intervals not 
longer than 3 years. The length of time during which satis- 
factory yields of bananas may be obtained without replanting 
will in all cases, however, depend upon the physical properties 
of the soil and the amount of fertilizer and cultivation which 
the crop receives. In some cases good yields have been ob- 
tained for 10 or even 12 years continuously without systematic 
cultivation. 

The yield of bananas ranges from 225 to 300 bunches per 
acre per year. Each bunch carries from 6 to 12 "hands" or 
clusters of bananas. A payable bunch of bananas is considered 
by banana dealers as meaning a bunch containing 9 hands or 
more. The banana grower receives from 30 to 60 cents per 
bunch, according to the size of the bunch and the locality. The 
American market for bananas is best during the months from 



FRUITS AND NUTS 87 

March to June, and an effort is made in planting bananas to 
time the crop so that a considerable proportion of the bananas 
may be marketed during these favorable months. 

According to the experience of most banana growers, not 
much fertilizer is required for bananas. If lime, humus, drain- 
age, and good cultivation are supplied, and if a rotation sys- 
tem is adopted or replanting is done every 5 years, good results 
may be expected without the use of other fertilizers. Some 
growers, however, apply about 150 pounds of potash, 75 
pounds of phosphoric acid, and 50 pounds of nitrogen per acre 
per year. An abundant rainfall is necessary for the satisfac- 
tory growth of bananas, otherwise irrigation is required. The 
rainfall should be from 60 to 100 inches. The banana will not 
tolerate brackish water. If the irrigation water or ground 
water contains even small percentages of salt the banana will 
never produce a marketable bunch of fruit. 

There is a large but indefinite number of varieties of 
bananas. Plantain and banana are not definite terms used with 
the same significance in all countries. All varieties of bananas 
are called plantains in Ceylon and India. In the West Indies, 
bananas is the term used for varieties which are eaten raw 
and plantains for those varieties which are eaten cooked. In 
Hawaii, the corresponding terms are bananas and cooking 
bananas. All the varieties of bananas belong to the genus 
Musa and several species of Musa produce edible fruit. Musa 
sapientum, in full development, produces a trunk 20 to 25 
feet high with leaves 4 to 8 feet long. The flower bracts are 
of violet color and 6 to 12 inches long. The male flowers are 
deciduous and the fruit is slightly 3-angled and about 3 to 8 
inches in length. This group of bananas includes the Jamaica, 
Red Spanish, Apple, Lady Finger, Ice Cream, Brazilian, 
Hamakua, Largo, and the Hawaiian varieties (Iholena, Mai- 
maoli, Popoulu, Huamoa, etc.). The subspecies paradisiaca 
has a long cylindrical fruit and, for the most part, is eaten 
only after cooking. This subspecies includes the Kusaie ba- 



88 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

nana and certain semi-wild forms of bananas which bear seed. 
The species of banana known as Musa acuminata bears fruit 
in bunches of 4 to 6 large hands of 10 to 12 fingers each. The 
fruit is short, being not more than 2 to 4 inches in length, is 
beaked, and contains seed. This species is common in the 
Malay Archipelago. 

The Chinese, Dwarf, or Canary banana, known to botanists 
as cavendishii, and also sometimes called Cavendish banana, 
grows only 4 to 6 feet high and bears 6 to 8 leaves in a close 
crown. The male flowers are persistent on the tip of the flow- 
ering stem. The fruit is slightly hexagonal, about 4 to 6 inches 
long, and with a rather thick skin and excellent flavor. 

The phenomenal rise of the banana industry is one of the 
most interesting phases of modern commerce. The industry 
began sometime more than a generation ago with the shipment 
of a few bunches of bananas to the United States from Jamaica 
and Panama. In 1878 bananas were imported into the United 
States to the value of $500,000. By 1900 the value of the 
banana imports had increased to $6,000,000, and in 1914 to 
$16,500,000. This industry is concerned almost entirely with 
one variety of banana, commonly known as the Jamaica ba- 
nana, but also sometimes called Gros Michel, Martinique, or 
Bluefields. The Spanish Red or Cuban Red banana is im- 
ported into the United States in small quantities, and may occa- 
sionally be seen on the markets of our large cities. The Chi- 
nese banana is found only on the California markets and in 
Florida. This banana is grown in Hawaii and has thus far 
been marketed exclusively in San Francisco. The flavor of 
the Chinese banana is so well liked that the Hawaiian bananas 
are all consumed in San Francisco and Oakland. Recently an 
arrangement has been made for shipping about 15^000 bunches 
of Chinese bananas per month to Portland, Oregon. The 
banana industry of Hawaii is a small but slowly increasing 
one. It began about 1865 and has now reached about 20,000 
bunches per month. The United States imported in 1914, 48,- 



FRUITS AND NUTS 89 

000,000 bunches of bananas from Jamaica, Costa Rica, Colom- 
bia, Panama, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, Cuba, Do- 
minican Republic, and Hawaii. Large exports are made from 
these same countries also to Europe. For example, the Canary 
Islands export about 3,000,000 bunches of the Chinese banana 
annually to Europe, mostly to England. 

The development of the banana industry has been largely 
due to the efforts of several large fruit-distributing companies 
which have built and operated for many years steamers spe- 
cially adapted for this trade. There are now about 300 steam- 
ers chiefly occupied in the banana trade. These steamships 
carry 10,000 to 12,000 bunches of bananas each, but some of 
the larger ones carry 50,000 to 75,000 bunches. Special ar- 
rangements are made on these boats for carrying bananas with 
a minimum of loss. Forced ventilation is in use on the steam- 
ships and in some cases refrigeration has been adopted. 
Bananas do not endure a low temperature in cold storage and 
the temperature commonly adopted is not lower than 55° F. 
In addition to these special banana steamships which are also 
fitted up for passenger trade in tropical cruises, special trains 
have been provided for the fast transportation of bananas on 
arrival at ports of the United States. New Orleans is one of 
the large distributing points for bananas. On arrival at these 
distributing centers the bananas are ripened in rooms specially 
prepared for this purpose at a temperature of 60° to 80° F. 
for a period of about 48 hours. The Jamaica banana is so 
compactly arranged in the bunches that the individual bananas 
are not readily broken off. Special arrangements have been 
made for carrying these bunches on shipboard with a view to 
obviating the necessity for wrapping the bunches. The bunches 
of Jamaica bananas are laid on shelves or are suspended close 
together so as to prevent rubbing and bruising. The Chinese 
banana, on the other hand, seldom develops so compact a bunch 
as the Jamaica banana. For this reason, unless special ar- 
rangements are made on shipboard for banana transportation, 



90 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

it is necessary to wrap the bunches in banana leaves or other 
suitable material in order to prevent the individual bananas 
from becoming broken off. 

The banana is, w^ithout comparison, the most important tropi- 
cal fruit. It may be had every day of the year. The great 
importance of the banana is not fully indicated by the commer- 
cial trade in this fruit. It should be remembered that nearly 
every inhabitant of the Tropics outside of the large cities has 
a few banana plants in his garden from which fruit is obtained 
for table use. Millions of tropical inhabitants depend upon the 
banana as one of the staple food products. The chemical com- 
position of the banana shows that this fruit contains i to ij/^ 
per cent, of protein and 14 to 26 per cent, of starch. Many 
persons have found that they can not eat bananas without some 
distress. This digestive disturbance is apparently due to the 
large amount of starch in the banana in all stages until it is 
fully ripe or overripe. In the ripening of the banana prac- 
tically all of the starch, which constitutes on an average about 
15 per cent, by weight of the fresh banana, is changed into 
sugar. The banana is therefore most digestible when fully 
ripe. The transformation of the starch into sugar is not com- 
pleted until the final stages of ripening. It should always be 
remembered that the skin of the banana is sufficiently thick and 
tough to protect the edible pulp against dirt or contamination 
so long as no injury has occurred to the skin. Bananas are 
therefore a safe and palatable food product, even after the skin 
has turned black, provided the skin has not been broken. In 
the final stages of ripening the pulp becomes a soft straw-col- 
ored jelly. The softening indicates the complete transforma- 
tion of the starch into sugar. In this fully ripe or overripe 
condition many persons who otherwise would have to abstain 
from the use of bananas have found that they may eat them 
without the occurrence of digestive disturbances. 

One often hears the expression of a desire to pick bananas 
fully ripened on the plant and to enjoy the superior flavor 



FRUITS AND NUTS 91 

which is often supposed to be developed under those condi- 
tions. This, however, is entirely a misconception. No one in 
the Tropics would think of allowing the bananas to ripen on 
the plant. In the first place they do not ripen uniformly. On 
this account the few fruits which first turn yellow in different 
parts of the bunch are quickly attacked by birds and insects 
and are thus destroyed. In the second place, the flavor and 
nutritive value are not one whit improved by allowing the 
fruit to ripen on the plant. Fruit picked two weeks or longer 
before ripening and hung in a cool place on the bunch will 
develop their flavor and nutritive value as completely as if 
allowed to remain on the plant. The inhabitants of the 
Tropics, therefore, commonly cut off a bunch of bananas from 
time to time for household use and allow it to hang in some 
cool part of the house, removing the bananas for use as fast 
as they ripen. 

Bananas are eaten not only in the raw condition as fresh 
fruit, but are preserved in the form of banana figs or as banana 
flour and a great variety of bananas are eaten only after bak- 
ing or frying. The product known as banana figs is made in 
Jamaica, Hawaii, and elsewhere. The method of preparation 
consists in slicing the pulp of the banana in halves and allow- 
ing the pulp to dry either in the sun or preferably in an artifi- 
cial drying apparatus. The sugar in the fully ripe banana is 
sufficient to preserve the fruit in that form and the moisture 
is not all driven out by the process of drying. The resulting 
product is a soft, flexible, yellow-colored pulp of rather agree- 
able flavor. Banana flour is made from fully grown unripe 
bananas which are pealed, sliced, and dried in the sun or in 
vacuum driers to a moisture content of about 15 per cent. 
The amount of desiccation undergone in this process may be 
understood when it is remembered that fresh bananas contain 
about 75 per cent, of water. The material is then pulverized 
and sifted, after which it is used for various culinary purposes. 
Cooking bananas are baked, fried, or cooked in a stew pan 



92 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

after being allowed to ripen fully. In the process of baking, 
an agreeable flavor somewhat different from that of the 
fresh fruit is developed, some of the varieties developing a 
decided sweet, acid flavor. While the ordinary Jamaica banana 
may be cooked or used in fritters, it is by no means as well 
adapted for this purpose as the varieties of cooking bananas. 

There are a great number of varieties of bananas differing 
in flavor and appearance as decidedly as the varieties of apples. 
Some of these varieties may be eaten when they a^'e only half 
ripe, while others contain in the unripe condition so much tan- 
nin as to be quite unfit for food. This is particularly true of 
the Apple banana, which is no more palatable than a green 
persimmon until it is completely ripe. Little effort has been 
made thus far to ship cooking varieties of bananas to the 
United States. 

Waste bananas may be fed to stock, but they should not be 
used for this purpose until they are entirely ripe. They may 
also be used in making denatured alcohol. The trunk and 
leaves of bananas are used as cattle feed. For this purpose 
they are palatable, but not particularly nutritious. Banana fiber 
from many localities has been tested, but the commercial use 
of this fiber offers little prospect at the present time. 

The banana differs widely in its chemical composition from 
the ordinary fruit of the market, such as apples, pears, and 
peaches. The high percentage of starch in the banana makes 
this fruit somewhat comparable with potatoes in nutritive 
value. It is unquestionable that from the standpoint of human 
food the banana is the most important fruit known in the 
world's commerce. Unfortunately, however, the obvious 
merits of the banana have seemed insufficient to some of its 
most ardent champions and resort has been had to numerous 
exaggerations which have been repeated parrot-like in the lit- 
erature relating to bananas. For example, on a basis of the 
chemical composition of banana flour, comparisons have been 
drawn showing: that banana flour is far more nutritious than 







Young Avocado Tree in Fkuit, Trapp Vaiukiy 




Sandersha Mango Tree in Bearing 



FRUITS AND NUTS 93 

beefsteak or wheat bread. The absurdity of such claims is 
sufficiently apparent when one remembers that the fresh ba- 
nana contains 75 per cent, of water and that a comparison of 
the composition of the dry substance of one product with an- 
other product in a fresh condition is obviously unfair. Many 
exaggerated statements as to the yield of bananas as compared 
with the yields of potatoes and wheat have also crept into the 
literature of this subject. For example, in a recent book on 
bananas, which is perhaps the fullest and most satisfactory 
discussion thus far presented of the whole subject from an 
agricultural and botanical standpoint, the statement was made 
that the total yield of food material produced by bananas is 
240,000 pounds per acre. The utter impossibility of such a 
yield is apparent from the fact that the average number of 
bunches of bananas per acre per year is from 230 to 240. In 
order to secure a total yield of 240,000 pounds per acre it would 
obviously be necessary that each bunch of bananas weigh 1,000 
pounds, whereas the average weight is from 40 to 75 pounds. 
The banana possesses sufficient well known merits to make its 
way in the world without the aid of such exaggerations. 

The banana is subject to the attacks of various fungi and 
insect pests, but only one, the so-called Panama disease, is of 
real serious consequence. This disease causes the wilting down 
and rotting of the stem and spreads quite rapidly throughout 
the plantation and from one plantation to another. In parts 
of Costa Rica, Panama, Mexico, and British Guiana, the dis- 
ease has caused devastation and abandonment of large areas 
of bananas. The Panama disease attacks particularly the 
Jamaica and Brazilian banana. The Chinese banana, on the 
other hand, is quite resistant. No satisfactory method of con- 
trolling the Panama disease has been devised and the substitu- 
tion of the Chinese banana for the Jamaica banana appears to 
be the only practical method of continuing in the banana busi- 
ness in the infected areas. 

The United States occupies a very unimportant place in the 



94 TROPICAL AGRICULTtJKE 

production of bananas. In the Philippines, bananas are every- 
where grown for household purposes, but have never become 
of commercial importance. Experiments have been carried on 
at the Bureau of Agriculture in Manila with more than 300 
varieties of bananas, but the Philippines cannot be said to have 
a commercial banana industry. Similarly with Porto Rico, 
while bananas are grown in all parts of the island, they are 
raised for domestic use and do not come into international 
trade. Hawaii is the only part of the United States which pro- 
duces more bananas than are consumed locally. As indicated 
above, the shipment of bananas from Hawaii to the United 
States amounts to about 20,000 bunches per month, and this 
amount may be nearly doubled within the near future by an 
effort which is being made to secure the Chinese banana, grown 
in Hawaii, for distribution in the Northwest. In Florida, the 
Chinese banana thrives fairly well and produces good bunches 
of well formed bananas. These bananas are all taken by local 
markets. 

PINEAPPLES 

A genuine pleasure is still in store for the individual who 
has not tasted a pineapple allowed to reach the full stage of 
ripeness on the plant. The pineapple is perhaps the most con- 
spicuous of the few fruits which do not develop their full flavor 
if picked when green. The pineapple is a native of tropical 
America and is now cultivated to some extent everywhere in 
the Tropics and the subtropics and even in Europe (under 
glass). It is grown on a large scale in South America, the 
West Indies, Porto Rico, Cuba, Florida, Hawaii, Federated 
Malay States, Ceylon, Java, Queensland, Madagascar, and in 
other countries. 

The pineapple is referred by botanists to the name Ana<nassa 
sativa. The plant is a herbaceous perennial belonging to the 
family Bromeliacese. It reaches a height of 2 to 4 feet, devel- 
oping only a very short stem, which is commonly called the 



FRUITS AND x\UTS 95 

stump. From the base of the stump fibrous roots develop, and 
arranged along the upper portion of the stump in a spiral equi- 
tant fashion are the numerous long, narrow, serrate, and 
usually spiny leaves which are channeled above and are about 
2 to 4 feet long. In a few varieties the leaves are not spiny 
along the edges. At blossoming time the plant bears a spike 
of small lavender-colored flowers and later produces a conical 
compound fruit which at maturity varies in size from i to 15 
pounds or more, according to location and variety. 

The pineapple is propagated by suckers, slips, crowns, or 
stumps. The ..suckeps-are the small plants which develop in 
the axils of the upper leaves below the fruit stem. The crown 
is the cluster of short leaves which are formed upon the tip of 
the fruit. The slips are small plants which develop from the 
side of the fruit stem just at the base of the fruit, while the 
stump, as already indicated, is the short stem of the pineapple 
. plant^ Ordinarily, propagation is by means of suckers since 
plants grown from suckers produce fruit more quickly than 
from any other method of propagation. If suckers are taken 
for planting at the right stage of maturity, the resulting plants 
will produce pineapples within 15 to 18 months. The crowns 
are allowed to remain on fruit for fresh shipment and can 
therefore only be secured for planting purposes from the fruit 
which are canned. It requires nearly two years for plants 
grown from crowns to ripen fruit. From slips the mature 
fruit are obtained somewhat more quickly than from crowns, 
but not so soon as from suckers. 'Stumps are occasionally used 
for planting purposes and have the advantage of producing a 
very vigorous growth. They may be only half buried in fur- 
rows or may be entirely covered over. In fact, the methods 
used in planting pineapple stumps are similar to those em- 
ployed in planting sticks of seed cane. The pineapple stump 
is composed largely of starch comparing favorably in this re- 
spect with sweet potatoes and cassava. The stump has, there- 
fore, been found more serviceable than the sucker in planting 



96 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

on manganiferous soil since the stump itself furnishes a large 
store of material for the production of the young plant. 

In preparing suckers and slips for planting it is customary 
to remove some of the leaves at the base of the sucker or slip 
and to allow the cut end to dry thoroughly before placing in 
the soil. The suckers or slips are then planted in rows, being 
inserted only a few inches into the soil. These young plants 
are extremely drought resistant and will withstand a long dry 
season, finally striking root and beginning to grow when the 
rain appears. 

The rainfall required for the successful growth of pineapples 
should be at least 50 inches, but pineapples will endure a 
much heavier rainfall if the soil is well drained. Good tilth and 
satisfactory drainage are very necessary for the proper growth 
of pineapples. The pineapple is a rather anomalous plant in 
some of its relations with the soil, belonging as it does to a 
family of plants many of which are epiphytes or air plants. 
It appears itself to be able to live for considerable periods prac- 
tically as an air plant. Occasionally, one will find in the case 
of large vigorous plants that practically all of the roots have 
died and decayed. The living roots, however, possess an un- 
usually heavy coating of root hairs near their growing tips, and 
the physical condition of the soil with respect to drainage and 
aeration appears to be one of the prime factors in the proper 
growth of the plant. It is necessary to keep pineapple fields 
as free 'as may be from weeds. This may be accomplished 
either by hand weeding, by horse cultivation, or by spraying 
with arsenite of soda. The chemical method for destroying 
weeds is used to some extent in the pineapple fields of Hawaii 
in the same manner as in the cane fields. In seasons when 
rains occur so frequently as to keep the soil constantly moist 
for a long period, it may be necessary to resort to dynamiting 
pineapple fields in order to bring about drainage without pud- 
dling the surface layer of the soil by cultivation. Dynamiting 
has been tested on a considerable scale in Hawaii and with sat- 



FRUITS AND NUTS 97 

isfactory results. In fields of growing pineapples the sticks of 
dynamite are exploded about 20 feet apart both ways at a 
depth of about 4 feet. This operation, if properly carried out, 
does not disturb the surface layer of soil and therefore does 
not interfere with the growth of the plants. 

It has been found by practical experience and by scientific 
investigation that pineapples will not endure an excess of either 
lime or manganese in the soil. The effect of an excess of lime 
is to produce a yellowing of the leaves and the development 
of small fruits in which the normal color does not appear. 
Manganese, if present in the soil to an extent of more than 3 
per cent., has similar effects, but the effects are usually mani- 
fested to a much greater degree. On highly manganiferous soil 
the pineapple leaves turn yellow and the young fruit develops 
a decided pink color long before it has reached its full size 
and, of course, far in advance of the process of ripening. 
These fruits even when ripe are extremely acid and unpala- 
able. Manganese when present in the soil in excess has the 
effect of forcing the pineapple plant to absorb undue quantities 
of lime. Some of this lime is thrown out of solution in the 
form of needle-like crystals of oxalate of lime. The pineapple 
leaf apparently has no breathing pores or stomata, at least 
thorough search has failed to detect any stomata. The chloro- 
phyll of the pineapple leaf is largely located on the under side 
of the leaf and is protected from the direct rays of the sun by 
a reddish-colored sap in the epidermis of the upper side of the 
leaf and by a thick layer of water-distributing tissue above the 
chlorophyll. 

The fruit of the pineapple differs in its composition and rip- 
ening process from the banana or apple or pear. At no stage 
of growth, however small or green, does the pineapple contain 
any considerable quantity of starch. In fact, there is no meas- 
urable quantity of starch in the pineapple at any time except 
a few small granules in the green tissue of the rind immediately 
under the eyes of the fruit. As already indicated, however. 



98 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the stump and the fruit stem are completely filled with starch. 
The supply of sugar for the ripening pineapple is, therefore, 
secured from the starch in the stump by transformation and 
translocation. It is obvious, therefore, that when the fully 
grown pineapple, still green and firm, is cut from the plant there 
is no material in the fruit which can be transformed into sugar 
during the process of ripening. Fruit picked in this condition, 
however, does undergo a process of ripening. The normal 
color of the ripened fruit develops and the tissue of the fruit 
becomes soft and juicy. Fruit picked in a green condition, 
however, contains no more sugar when it is fully ripe than at 
the time when it was taken from the plant. In the condition 
in which pineapples are commonly picked for shipment as fresh 
fruit, the pineapple fruit contains about 4 per cent, of sugar. 
In the fully ripe condition, on the other hand, the pineapple 
contains from 9 to 14 per cent, sugar with an average sugar 
content of about 11 per cent. It is sufficiently obvious, without 
argument, that the flavor of a fruit containing 11 per cent, of 
sugar is far superior to that of one containing only 4 per cent. 
Pineapples are not harvested for canning until they are com- 
pletely ripe and are then canned within 24 to 48 hours after 
being harvested. For this reason the flavor of ordinary canned 
pineapples is superior to that of the average run of fresh pine- 
apples to be found on the market. Without refrigeration it is 
impossible to ship perfectly ripe pineapples for the reason that 
they are too easily bruised and immediately begin to ferment. 
The difficulty of placing fresh pineapples in their best con- 
dition on the northern markets was not to be overcome with- 
out the use of refrigeration. A study was, therefore, made by 
the Hawaii Experiment Station to determine whether refrig- 
eration was adapted for use for pineapples. These experiments 
were begun after the Hawaii Station had worked out the essen- 
tial chemical processes in the ripening of the pineapple fruit. 
Pineapples were placed in cold storage rooms at temperatures 
of 32° and 36° F. The fruit used in these experiments was in 



FRUITS AND NUTS 99 

various stages of growth from green to fully ripe. In the 
room held at a temperature of 32° F. after one month, ripe 
pineapples showed a slight deadening of the normal yellow 
color. The rind was otherwise in perfect condition and the 
flavor was excellent, being equal in most cases to that of the 
pineapple freshly cut from the plant. In a few cases the acidity 
seemed to be less than before refrigeration. After about 45 
days a slight withering began to occur. Essentially the same 
results were obtained in the room held at a temperature of 36° 
F., except that the flavor of the pineapple began to deteriorate 
after 35 days in the case of fruits placed in refrigeration in a 
perfectly ripe condition. These findings of the Hawaii Experi- 
ment Station have been put into practice by the pineapple grow- 
ers of Florida with great advantage to their industry. The 
pineapple industry had been somewhat on the decline in Flor- 
ida, no large canning establishments were located there, and 
fruit consumers did not take very kindly to the sour pine- 
apples which appeared on the northern markets. By means of 
cold storage, however, it has been found possible to ship ripe 
fruits to the northern markets, and fruit buyers have been glad 
to pay $1 a crate more for this fruit than had been the ruling 
price for pineapples before the use of refrigeration. 

The shipments of fresh pineapples from Porto Rico are 
already large and are increasing from year to year. The fresh 
Porto Rican pineapples are all shipped into New York. A 
large percentage of the Florida crop of pineapples is also sent 
to New York. Recently an impetus has been given to the 
shipment of fresh pineapples from Hawaii by the activities of 
the territorial marketing division, which is carried on under 
the supervision of the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture. It has been found that the pineapple rot which caused 
serious losses in some previous shipments of fresh pineapples 
from Hawaii is very prevalent in certain localities, while other 
plantations are relatively free from the disease. Shipments 
have therefore been obtained largely from plantations where 



100 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the disease does not greatly prevail. Hawaiian fresh pineap- 
ples have recently been shipped in carload lots from the branch 
office of the territorial marketing division in San Francisco as 
far east as Chicago and other cities. A large industry has also 
been worked up for the fancy trade in which 9 and 10-pound 
pineapples are sent in heavy paper cartons by express to vari- 
ous parts of the United States. The preferred package for this 
kind of shipment holds four fruit and weighs a little under 50 
pounds. 

For canning purposes, pineapples weighing from 3^/^ to 5 
pounds are preferred on account of the fact that there is less 
loss. Some attempt has been made to select plants which pro- 
duce cylindrical fruit rather than conical fruit, since in cylin- 
drical fruit a large number of slices of the same diameter could 
be obtained. This also prevented undue loss of fruit. Per- 
haps the largest and most efficient pineapple canneries in the 
world are located in Honolulu. The process of canning has 
been systematized until the whole operation is practically a 
continuous one from the lug boxes in which the pineapples 
are brought from the field to the sealed can. The business of 
pineapple canning has undergone a quite phenomenal develop- 
ment in Hawaii. In 1908 the output was about 350,000 cases, 
while at present it is nearly 2,000,000 cases. Even the core of 
the fruit is used. The paring and slicing machinery removes 
these cores in the form of cylindrical "candles." A great de- 
mand has been developed for these candles, all of which are 
shipped to New York. The candles are cooked in the same 
manner as the pineapple slices, canned, and shipped to New 
York, where they are used in the glace fruit industry. 

The pineapple juice was formerly allowed to go to waste in 
large quantities. At present more attention is paid to the pres- 
ervation of this material. Some of the canneries offer a bottled 
pineapple juice, which has been merely sterilized by heat and 
filtered and is otherwise unmodified. This product for the 
most part, however, does not have a very agreeable flavor and 




Papaya Tree in Miami, Flokida 



FRUITS AND NUTS 101 

does not make a very strong place for itself on the market. 
Recently a pineapple juice prepared in Cuba appears to be of 
more promise. One firm in Honolulu prepares a condensed 
pineapple sirup to which some cane sugar has been added, and 
this sirup is used for carbonating at soda fountains. A very 
palatable drink can be obtained in this way. On account of 
the large amount of sugar contained in pineapple juice, a plant 
has recently been erected in Honolulu for condensing this juice 
into a sirup to be used in increasing the sugar content of canned 
pineapples for the trade which requires additional sugar. The 
fiber of the pineapple leaf has been used for various purposes 
and a discussion of its economic value will be found under 
fibers. Moreover, the stumps are filled with starch and could 
possibly be used as a commercial source of starch. 

The varieties of pineapples grown commercially in Hawaii 
are Smooth Cayenne and Queensland, particularly the former. 
In Porto Rico the leading varieties are Cabezona, Red Spanish, 
Ruby, Sugar Loaf, Trinidad, and Black Jamaica. In Florida 
the pineapple growers have preferred the Red Spanish, Black 
Ripley, Egyptian, Golden Pernambuco, Abachi, and other va- 
rieties. As already indicated, the shipments of fresh pineapples 
from Porto Rico, Florida, and Hawaii are quite rapidly in- 
creasing, and this may be taken as an indication of the favor 
with which the pineapple is received in the northern markets 
so long as the fruit is shipped in a satisfactory condition. With 
the adoption of cold storage methods, riper pineapples with a 
larger sugar content and better flavor will reach the northern 
markets and the demand for fresh pineapples will undoubtedly 
increase as these improved methods are put into operation. 

CITRUS FRUITS 

The literature relating to citrus fruit is so extensive and 
has been so widely distributed in the form of bulletins, maga- 
zine articles, books, and newspaper accounts that it seems un- 



102 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

necessary for the purposes of the present volume to deal in 
much detail with the cultural and industrial methods used in 
the production of these familiar fruits. Citrus fruits are native 
of tropical Asia and Malaya. These fruits show such a wide 
variety of form, structure, flavor, and other characters that 
a brief reference to some of the distinguishing features of the 
different groups of citrus fruits may be desirable. 

The lemon (Citrus limonia) is a small tree with short stout 
thorns and with leaf stems sometimes narrowly margined. The 
flowers are rather large, being pure white above and crimson 
beneath. The fruit is oval, 3 to 5 inches long, and 2 to 3 inches 
in diameter. The favorite varieties of lemon in California 
are Lisbon, Villa Franca, and Genoa. The rough-skinned 
lemon and numerous other varieties are grown in tropical 
countries. 

The lime (C aurantifolia) is a rather small tree with sharp 
thorns and small leaves with winged petioles. The flowers are 
small and white and the fruit is nearly round, i to 2^ inches in 
diameter. The lime is grown extensively in the West Indies 
and Central America and also to a less extent in Florida, Cali- 
fornia, and in the eastern Tropics and Mediterranean regions. 
The favorite varieties of lime are Mexican, Tahiti (seedless), 
Sweet, Kusaie, etc. 

The grapefruit {C. grandis), also known as pomelo and 
shaddock, is a larger tree which is spineless, or furnished with 
flexible spines, and has glossy oval leaves and large white 
flowers. The fruit is an oblate spheroid, 4 to 6 inches in diam- 
eter or in some forms of shaddock which occur in Hawaii and 
the Pacific Islands the fruit may reach a diameter of 8 to 12 
inches with a very thick rind. The supply of grapefruit on 
the United States markets comes largely from Florida and 
Porto Rico. 

The corrimon or sweet orange (C. sinensis) is a small tree 
without spines or with slender flexible spines with narrow 
wings upon the leaf petioles and with pure white flowers. The 



FRUITS AND NUTS 103 

fruit is nearly round and the number of segments in each fruit 
ranges from lo to 13. The sweet orange is grown everywhere 
in the Tropics as well as in California and Florida. The favor- 
ite varieties are Navel, Valencia, Pineapple, Thompson, Ruby, 
Majorca, etc. The sour orange {C. aurantium) is a tree of 
medium size with long flexible spines, white fragrant flowers, 
and globose fruit 2}^ to 3^ inches in diameter. The sour 
orange is shipped from Spain to England in large quantities 
for use in making marmalade. Seedling sour oranges are 
widely used as citrus stock in the United States on account of 
their hardiness. 

The citron (C medico) is a small tree with short, stout 
thorns, large leaves, and large flowers, white above and crim- 
son beneath. The fruit is oval, 6 to 10 inches long and 4 to 6 
inches in diameter, usually with a rough skin. This tree is 
cultivated to a small extent in Florida and California and 
generally throughout the Tropics. The chief commercial 
cultivation of citron is in the Mediterranean region, par- 
ticularly in Corsica. The dried peel is shipped to the United 
States to be candied. 

The kumquat (C japonica) is a bush 6 to 8 feet high and 
bears oblong or round fruit about one inch in diameter. The 
usual form of kumquat fruit is oblong. The Chinese orange is 
considered as being the variety hazara of the kumquat. This 
tree reaches a height of 10 to 20 feet and bears a great pro- 
fusion of spherical fruit much used in making marmalade and 
as a flavor for papaya and other fruits. The bergamot (C 
bergamia) is grown chiefly for the essential oil contained in 
the peel. A brief discussion of the preparation of this oil will 
be found under essential oils. C. trifoliata is used largely as a 
citrus stock on account of its extreme hardiness. The fruit is 
about 2 inches in diameter, is very acid, full of seed, and not 
very juicy. The mandarin group of citrus fruit includes the 
Dancy, the King mandarin, Satsuma, Mikado, and a number 
of other citrus varieties. The mandarin group is commonly 



104. TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

referred to as C. nobilis and these varieties are known either 
as mandarins or tangerines. 

In the early years of its development in Florida the citrus in- 
dustry made a slow and gradual growth until the season of 
1884-85, at which time 600,000 boxes of citrus fruits were 
shipped out of Florida groves. During the next decade the 
industry increased very rapidly and 6,000,000 boxes of citrus 
fruits were shipped from Florida in the season of 1894-95. 
The industry was then greatly crippled by the great freeze, 
after which it built up rapidly again. For the year ended 
August 31, 1915, California shipped 40,986 cars of oranges and 
6,658 cars of lemons. The popularity of the Valencia orange 
has so greatly increased that it can no longer be said that the 
California orange industry consists in growing the navel 
■orange. The lemon crop of California in 1915 was more than 
twice that of the previous year. There are now in California 
20,000 acres of lemons, 21,000 acres of Valencia orange, and 
43,500 acres of Washington Navel orange, all 4 years or under 
in age. When these areas of citrus fruit come into bearing it 
will greatly increase the output from California. Florida 
shipped 20,706 carloads of oranges and grapefruit from De- 
cember, 1914, to August, 1915. 

The recent development of the citrus industry in the United 
States is due chiefly to cooperative organization, regulated dis- 
tribution, and the scientific study of methods of packing, pre- 
cooling, and shipment in refrigeration. The organization of 
the California Citrus Growers' Association was one of the 
pioneer associations along the line of agricultural cooperation 
■in the United States, and has been frequently used as a model 
of efficiency and methods in the organization of other similar 
associations. The Florida Citrus Exchange is of more recent 
development, but is of almost, if not quite, equal efficiency as 
an agency for the scientific distribution of the Florida citrus 
crop. In addition to the citrus fruit produced in this country, 
the United States imported in 1914 about 160,000,000 pounds 



FRUITS AND NUTS 105 

of lemons and about 4,000,000 pounds of oranges. At present 
the consensus of opinion gives the first rank to the grapefruit 
from Florida and Porto Rico. California grapefruit are more 
bitter and not so juicy. The lemon industry in the United 
States, however, is almost entirely confined to California. Lit- 
tle success has been had in growing lemons in Florida except 
in a few restricted localities. 

Citrus fruits run wild in various parts of the Tropics, thus 
resulting in the development of numerous seedlings. Some 
Hawaiian and Porto Rican seedling oranges are of excellent 
flavor and are gradually finding an appreciative market. The 
Porto Rican seedling oranges are shipped in large quantities 
to New York City, where they are sold to the poorer inhabi- 
tants of the East Side. In the matter of citrus fruit, at least, 
the East Side residents get a far better bargain than their 
more prosperous fellow citizens, since the seedling fruit cost 
much less than the standard varieties of oranges and are for 
the most part actually of superior flavor to the Navel and Val- 
encia oranges. The same statement applies with equal force to 
some of the Hawaiian seedling oranges, which are far superior 
to the California oranges shipped to the Honolulu markets. 
The citrus industry is rapidly developing in one line or another 
in various tropical countries. As an example of one special line 
of development, it may be mentioned that perhaps the chief 
export from the Dominican Republic is concentrated lime 
juice. 

The orange-producing countries stand in the following or- 
der : United States, Spain, Italy, Palestine, Japan, Porto Rico, 
Cuba, etc. The total production of oranges amounts to 40,- 
000,000 boxes per year. The lemon-producing countries stand 
in the following order : Sicily, Italy, California, etc. The total 
production of lemons is 7,000,000 boxes per year. The citrus 
industry, as a whole, results not only in the production of enor- 
mous quantities of fruit to be consumed in a fresh condition, 
but also in various by-products, such as lime juice, lemon juice, 



106 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

citric acid, orange juice, orange wine, orange vinegar, lemon oil, 
bergamot perfume, and various other products. 

In recent years a keen rivalry for the early citrus fruit mar- 
ket has developed between California, Florida, and Porto Rico. 
The highest prices are obtained usually for the earliest ship- 
ments of fruit which the market receives. From a financial 
standpoint, therefore, it has been a point of great advantage 
to reach the market first with grapefruit or oranges or other 
fruit in which the shipper is interested. No one of these com- 
petitors has any pronounced natural advantage of earliness 
from climatic conditions over his competitors. The race for 
the early market has therefore involved certain tricks of the 
trade, and among these perhaps the most familiar one is the 
process of artificial ripening. It has been found that by a 
sweating process under the influence of artificial heat the 
chlorophyll or green color in the unripe fruit may be made to 
disappear quickly, thus producing the appearance of ripeness in 
so far as the bright yellow color of the rind of the fruit is con- 
cerned. Of course, the development of sugar in the fruit can 
not keep pace with this change of color, and artificially ripened 
fruit may therefore be readily detected by the narrow ratio be- 
tween acid and total solids in the juice, these total solids being 
chiefly sugar. After numerous tests on ripe oranges it has been 
determined that the ratio of acid to total solids in the juice 
should not be closer than i : 8 as a standard requirement. In 
fruit artificially ripened by sweating the ratio between acids 
and total solids may be as close as 1 15. The United States De- 
partment of Agriculture is attempting to prevent the use of 
this process of artificial ripening for the reason that it is 
essentially a fraud toward the consumer. 

OLIVE 

The olive is one of the oldest of cultivated crops. It is 
native of Asia Minor and is referred by botanists to the name 



FRUITS AND NUTS 107 

Olea europcEa. The olive is cultivated chiefly around the Medi- 
terranan, particularly in Asia Minor, North Africa, Turkey, 
Greece, Austria, Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal. It has 
been introduced and cultivated on a small scale in nearly all 
subtropical and tropical countries, but aside from the Mediter- 
ranean region California is the only district in which olive 
production has been developed on a commercial scale. The 
United States imported 5,000,000 pounds of olives in 1914 and 
8,000,000 gallons of olive oil. This indicates the increasing 
favor with which olives are treated in the United States. 

The olive is an evergreen tree with narrow, lanceolate, leath- 
ery leaves, small white fragrant flowers and a spherical or 
ovate fruit which is bluish-black when ripe. The olive is ^ 
to I inch in diameter and has a hard pit. The oHve is easily 
propagated by cuttings or layers as well as by seed. Old 
trees may be easily improved by budding or grafting. The 
olive seldom fruits in Ceylon or Hawaii, although the trees 
reach a large size and show the usual vigor of growth in these 
countries. The reason for their sterility is not understood. 
Like citrus fruit the olive is not strictly a tropical plant, but will 
endure a temperature of 20° F. or in the case of some varieties 
even a temperature of 14° F. Such temperatures, however, 
cause injury unless the trees are in the most dormant condi- 
tion. The olive tree lives to a great age. There are trees in 
Palestine which are said to be 500 to 1,000 years old. Wild 
trees, if not cultivated, bear only every 2 or 3 years. 

Olive trees reach a height of about 40 feet and have a 
rounded, dense, and graceful head. The strongest, heaviest 
bearing and longest lived olive trees are those which are grown 
from seed. It should be remembered, too, that olive fruit is 
always borne on 2-year-old wood and that the same wood never 
bears twice. It is necessary, therefore, to maintain a good 
growth of new wood every year. 

In California the olive region corresponds quite closely with 
that of the raisin grape. The tree appears to thrive on any 



108 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

well drained soil which is supplied with sufficient lime. If 
young trees for planting are to be obtained from seedlings, it 
is well to soak the seed for several hours in a lo per cent, solu- 
tion of caustic potash before planting, otherwise they require a 
long time to sprout. Cuttings of almost any size or age may 
be rooted in the nursery, but these cuttings should preferably 
not be less than % inch in diameter. The young seedlings 
are grafted near the surface of the ground. The olive requires 
essentially the same cultural methods as citrus fruits. In 
California this means clean cultivation, the occasional use of 
cover crops, and rather heavy applications of irrigation water 
at long intervals. 

The yield of olives in the profitable orchards of California 
varies from i,ooo to 8,000 pounds per acre. For pickling 
large olives are selected, while for use in obtaining oils the 
smaller fruit and culls may be successfully employed. The pre- 
ferred varieties of olives in California are Mission, Sevallana, 
Manzanillo, and Ascolano. The process of pickling olives in- 
cludes three essential steps. The olives are first soaked for 
about 12 hours in a solution of caustic potash at the rate of i^ 
pounds to 12 gallons of water. As soon as the lye has pene- 
trated nearly to the pit the olives are removed to pure water 
in which they remain for 2 or 3 days, the water being changed 
at least once a day. After the lye and bitterness have been re- 
moved the olives are placed in salt brine of gradually increas- 
ing strength. For olives which are intended to be bottled or 
canned a brine containing 5 pounds of salt to 12 gallons of 
water is strong enough. 

For use as green pickles, olives are picked when fully grown, 
but before coloring. For use as ripe pickles or for oil olives 
are picked after coloring, but before turning black. The olive 
industry in California is a thriving and profitable one. At 
present the olive industry ranks along with the walnut indus- 
try among the most profitable agricultural operations in Cali- 
fornia. During the development of the olive industry in 




Feijoa Twigs and Fruit 




Tamarind Pods and Leaves 



FRUITS AND NUTS 109 

California more than 70 varieties of olives have been tested, 
but the varieties mentioned above have come to be considered 
as superior. 

DATE 

The date palm was also one of the earliest plants to be culti- 
vated by man. It is a native of northern Africa and Arabia, 
but is also cultivated extensively in southern Asia and spar- 
ingly throughout the Tropics. Beginnings in date cultivation 
have been made in Arizona, New^ Mexico, California, and 
Florida. The date palm referred by botanists to the name 
Phoenix dactylifera is a tree with a shaggy trunk which often 
reaches a height of 100 feet or more and continues to bear fruit 
for 100 to 200 years. The trunk is topped with a large crown 
of long pinnate leaves and bears 6 to 20 large clusters of fruit, 
each cluster weighing 20 to 40 pounds. The date palm is 
diecious, the male and female flowers growing on different 
trees. The common practice of Arabs is to hang small portions 
of the clusters of male flowers with the clusters of female 
flowers. As a rule, it is considered sufficient to have one male 
tree for each 25 female trees. The ordinary planting distance 
is 25 by 25 feet. The date palm usually begins bearing at 4 
years of age and attains full bearing at about 10 years. The 
fruit yield ranges from 100 to 600 pounds per tree, being 
usually 100 pounds or slightly more. 

The date palm differs from most other palms in producing 
suckers at the base of the stem at least during the first 8 or 10 
years of its life. Old date palms which have obtained nearly 
full height do not develop suckers. The date palm does not 
come true to seed and for the continuation of desirable varie- 
ties it is therefore necessary to plant suckers or offsets. Re- 
cently an attempt has been made to develop a pedigreed strain 
of seed from which it is hoped that 30 to 50 per cent, of the 
resulting trees will bear fruit of the same type as that of the 
parent tree. It is too early, however, to say whether this ex- 



110 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

pectation will be completely realized. Seedling dates are seldom 
edible. For the most part they are bitter and do not develop a 
sufficient quantity of sugar. Even the seedling dates v^^hich are 
sweet enough usually have only the thinnest film of pulp about 
the seed, so that they are practically useless for table purposes. 
Occasionally, however, a fairly satisfactory seedling date is 
obtained. 

The climatic and soil conditions necessary for the best 
growth of date palms include a dry air and high temperature 
at least during the later stages in the development of the fruit 
and an abundance of water at the roots of the trees. Provided 
the water is moving and not stagnant, the date will endure an 
unlimited amount of moisture. Moreover, it cannot be too hot 
for the date palm and the air cannot be too dry. The date palm 
is quite tolerant to alkali water. Among the numerous varieties 
of dates which have been introduced and grown in Arizona 
and California the Deglet-noor, Rhars, Wolf skill, Amaree, 
Tedmama, Hallawee, Zahdee, and Bhar have given excellent 
results. 

For curing dates the whole bunch is removed and confined 
in a warm, moist chamber at a temperature of 80° to 90° F. It 
h^° been found that there are two chemical varieties of dates, 
one containing cane sugar and the other containing chiefly 
invert sugar. At some stage of development, however, all 
dates contain a high percentage of cane sugar. The greatest 
increase in sugar takes place shortly before ripening. It is 
impossible to ship fresh dates to any great distance on account 
of their susceptibility to injury and fermentation. The neces- 
sity arises, therefore, of providing facilities for curing near 
the date plantation. It has been found that artificially ripened 
dates are superior to the naturally ripened fruit in keeping 
quality. This is probably due to the fact that the artificially 
ripened date is more nearly sterilized by the treatment which 
it undergoes. The dried, cured date as ordinarily obtained on 
the market contains 1.9 per cent, protein, 2.5 per cent, fat, and 



FRUITS AND NUTS 111 

70.6 per cent, sugar. The seed constitutes about 10 per cent, 
of the date by weight. 

The commercial date industry of the United States is still 
in the experimental stage. Dates of excellent quality have 
been produced in Arizona, New Mexico, and California. There 
is a market in the United States for far more dates than can 
be produced in the country for many years to come. The 
United States imports about 25,000,000 pounds of dates an- 
nually. 

FIG 

The fig (Ficus carica) belongs, as the botanical name indi- 
cates, to a genus of tropical plants including more than 600 
species of which many are familiar as species of rubber, 
banyan, and related plants. The fig is a native of Turkey and 
the Mediterranean. It is a shrub or tree of moderate size 
with palmately lobed leaves and peculiar hollow compound 
fruits. It is cultivated everywhere in the Tropics and sub- 
tropics as well as in the Southern States and California. In 
California the tree attains a large size. The fig tree is com- 
monly propagated by cuttings. These cuttings are very easily 
rooted and after they have rooted and developed a few shoots 
carrying leaves, they are planted in the field at distances 25 
by 25 feet. In the Orient, figs are planted much more closely 
together. For fresh consumption the favorite varieties are 
Celestial, White Adriatic, Golden, Black Ischia, Black Cali- 
fornia, etc. 

The Smyrna fig is the fig of commerce and appears on the 
market in the familiar dried condition. The Smyrna fig is 
produced chiefly in the Mediterranean region and in California. 
Numerous attempts were made to grow the Smyrna fig in Cali- 
fornia before the introduction of the Capri fig and the fig wasp 
known as Blastophaga grossorum. The Smyrna fig in order to 
attain its normal flavor must be fertilized by the fig wasp. This 
insect was introduced into California in 1889, since which 



112 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

time a highly developed industry in Smyrna figs has come 
into existence. By means of a number of varieties of Capri 
figs the fig wasp is carried throughout the year in its different 
generations and stages. The wasp emerges from the Capri 
fig and enters the opening in the end of the Smyrna fig, carry- 
ing upon itself a portion of the Capri fig pollen and thus fer- 
tilizing the Smyrna fig, causing the normal development of 
seed, flavor, and aroma. It has been found that two Capri 
figs for each lOO Smyrna fig trees is sufficient for purposes of 
pollination. California produces about 15,000 tons of Smyrna 
figs annually, and in addition to this quantity the United States 
imports about 10,000 tons each year. The fig has a fairly high 
nutritive value for fruits, especially in the dried condition. The 
fresh fig contains 1.5 per cent, protein and 18.8 per cent, 
sugars, while the dried fig carries 4.3 per cent, protein and 
about 75 per cent, total sugars. 



AVOCADO 

The avocado (Persea gratissima) is a tree native to tropical 
America. It has become universally distributed through the 
Tropics and subtropics. The avocado is a tree which attains 
a height of 20 to 60 feet, has leaves 4 to 15 inches long and 
2 to 10 inches wide, varying considerably in thickness and glos- 
siness, and fruits which vary greatly in size and shape. The 
avocado fruit may be oblong, nearly spherical, pear shaped, or 
bottle shaped, and may vary in length from 5 to 12 inches, 
in weight from i to 4 pounds, and in color from green through 
the browns to purple. Moreover, the rind varies from almost 
the thinness of paper to a thick woody shell. The avocado 
has also been called aguacate and alligator pear. The last 
name has become generally distributed and is much used al- 
though it is really a barbarous and inappropriate term. 

The avocado fruit has one large seed occupying the center 
of the fruit. In some seedlings and inferior varieties the seed 



FRUITS AND NUTS 113 

in fact occupies the larger part of the fruit, leaving only a 
thin layer of pulp between the seed and skin. There are 200 
or more known varieties of avocado which are cultivated in 
various parts of the Tropics and subtropics. The avocado 
is propagated by seed and by budding, grafting, or inarching. 
The seed are used merely to obtain the seedlings which can 
be budded, grafted, or inarched. The avocado does not come 
true to seed and it is therefore an unnecessary gamble to plant 
any considerable orchard to seedling avocados. Notwithstand- 
ing the great variation which occurs in the seedling avocados 
some of them possess flavor and other properties fully equal 
to the most improved varieties. 

The avocado tree begins bearing at 5 or 6 years of age. 
There is occasionally a tree which bears fruit at 3 years and 
sometimes not until 7 years. The full bearing age may be 
expected at about 8 to 10 years. A yield of 500 fruits per 
tree must be considered quite satisfactory although occa- 
sionally trees have been reported as yielding from 800 to 2,000 
fruits. 

In general, the long green-colored varieties of avocado are 
preferred as being superior in texture and flavor. In Florida 
the Trapp avocado is generally cultivated. In California the 
varieties thus far planted have been obtained largely from 
Mexico and Hawaii. In Hawaii a large number of chance 
seedhngs of superior merit have been propagated and varie- 
ties have been introduced from all parts of the world until 
about 65 varieties have been established at the Hawaii Ex- 
periment Station. One of these varieties, known as the Nut- 
meg, has an extremely hard woody shell covered with rough- 
ened protuberances. This is essentially a winter or very late 
variety and helps to extend very greatly the season during 
which avocados may be obtained on the market. The greater 
part of the crop of avocados in Hawaii comes to the market 
from June to August, but a good supply is maintained from 
May to September. Avocados arrive on the Honolulu market 



114 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

first from Kona in early April. Attention has been called 
to the fact that if one has regard to the whole avocado crop 
from Peru to Florida and including the Pacific Islands there 
are avocados on the market for all seasons of the year. The 
season during which fruit of good quality can be obtained in 
any reasonable quantity, however, is limited to a few months. 

As a matter of fact, there cannot be said to be as yet any 
commercial avocado industry. While this tree has been grown 
in all localities throughout tropical countries, it has never been 
planted in commercial orchards except perhaps in Florida. 
We have, therefore, the curious condition of affairs that prob- 
ably the largest avocado orchards in the world are now located 
in Florida in a locality where until recently it was not known 
whether avocados would thrive at all or not. 

The avocado in chemical composition is more like a nut than 
like a fruit. The fresh fruit contains 1.5 to 2.5 per cent, pro- 
tein and 13 to 22 per cent, oil depending upon variety and cli- 
mate. There is practically no starch or sugar in the avocado 
fruit at any stage of growth. The oil may be easily extracted 
by pressure and is of a greenish color and excellent flavor. It 
would be a superior salad oil but would necessarily be ex- 
tremely expensive since the demand for the fresh fruits is so 
active as to drive the price of the raw material far beyond the 
point which would allow an economic production of oil. 

The avocado endures cold storage excellently well. At the 
Hawaii Experiment Station avocados were held for a period of 
60 days at a temperature of 32" F. and when removed from 
the storage room were found to have retained their flavor 
almost perfectly. This refrigerated fruit held its flavor for 
a period of 6 days after removal from cold storage. 

MANGO 

The mango (Mangifera indica) is one of a group of about 
30 species of trees native to tropical Asia. The mango is the 



FRUITS AND NUTS 115 

only one in this group which produces fruit of value. It has 
been cultivated for centuries in India and was introduced into 
the Philippines in the sixteenth century. More recently much 
interest has been shown in the mango in Florida, Porto Rico, 
Cuba, and Hawaii. The mango is a beautiful evergreen tree, 
with dense foliage, entire leathery lanceolate leaves, and grace- 
ful panicles of small reddish-yellow or green flowers. The 
fruit is borne in pendant clusters on long pedicles and varies 
in size from 2 or 3 ounces to 3 pounds in weight, according 
to variety. The tree bears a crop of fruit each year or occa- 
sionally two crops will be borne on a few trees in the mango 
orchard. The mango is now widely distributed throughout 
the Tropics, where it occurs in a great range of varieties. 
About 600 varieties have been mentioned as occurring in India 
alone and new varieties are constantly appearing by the nat- 
ural variation of seedlings and as a result of cross-pollination 
in orchards of mixed varieties. Some of these variety names 
are doubtless synonymous but the number of horticulturally 
distinct varieties is unquestionably large. 

The mango is nowhere grown in large continuous orchards 
but almost everyone in the Tropics has a mango tree. Some 
of the most delicious varieties of mangos come from the 
Philippines, where the chief varieties are Carabao, Pico, and 
Pahutan. Some of the noted and most highly esteemed Indian 
varieties of mango are Alphonse, Totapari, Cambodiana, Mul- 
goa, Mulgoba, Sandersha, Brindabani, etc. In addition to these 
well known improved varieties of superior flavor and other 
merits, there are hundreds of varieties of seedling trees, some 
of which are of rather high merit but which are likely to be 
full of fiber and permeated with the flavor of turpentine. 

The esteem in which the mango is held as a fruit for eating 
in a fresh condition depends almost entirely on the varieties 
with which acquaintance has been had. If one's notion of the 
mango came from attempts to eat the ordinary stringy tur- 
pentiny seedling, the mango would be considered as a practi- 



116 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

cally worthless fruit. On the other hand, some of the best 
varieties have a delicate aroma and a flavor of the highest 
delicacy. It is unquestionable that if the standard varieties 
of mangos could be placed on the northern markets in prime 
condition the demand for them would soon far exceed that for 
any other fresh tropical fruit except bananas and pineapples. 
The color and shape of the mango fruit vary greatly as well 
as the size of the fruit. The color ranges from green to yel- 
low, and various peach tints to a decided magenta, and the rind 
may be variously speckled with yellow or pink spots or with 
a blush of high color on one side of the fruit. The amount 
of fiber in the fruit also varies greatly. In some varieties the 
slicing of the fruit with a knife makes a noise like the opera- 
tion of shaving a stiff beard. In other varieties the pulp is so 
free from fiber and of such consistency that it may be readily 
eaten with a spoon. 

The mango, with the exception of some of the Philippine 
varieties, does not come true to seed. It should be propagated 
therefore by the methods of inarching, budding, grafting, or 
bark grafting. In some of the seedling types, particularly 
those from the Philippines, the seed is polyembryonic, each 
seed producing 6 to 8 or more plants. Such types of mangos 
usually come fairly true to seed. In planting the seed the husk 
should be removed. This hastens germination and also en- 
ables one to see whether he is planting a good kernel or a 
mere empty husk. It should be remembered that the seeds 
do not retain their germinating power more than one to two 
months after removal from the fruit. In many localities in 
the Tropics seed is likely to be destroyed by the mango weevil, 
which enters the fruit when it is young and goes through its 
transformations in the kernel of the seed. 

The flower panicles, the young fruit, and the growing twigs 
are often attacked by the fungous disease known as the mango 
anthracnose. This causes a blighting of the twigs and flowers 
and prevents the setting of fruit. It is particularly prevalent 




Fruiting Branch of Litchi 



FRUITS AND NUTS IIT 

in moist weather but it can be controlled by spraying with 
Bordeaux mixture unless repeated and frequent rain storms 
occur during the flowering season. The fruit also fails to set 
if high winds and heavy rains occur during the flowering sea- 
son even without the attacks of anthracnose. If the setting 
of fruit should thus be prevented by these causes a new crop 
of flowers may be produced a month or two later, thus bring- 
ing a crop of fruit to maturity out of the regular season. In 
these respects the mango is like the avocado, which is also 
affected by anthracnose in the same manner and which may be 
prevented from setting fruit by persistent rain during the 
flowering season. 

The mango has often been called the apple of the Tropics 
and sometimes the king of fruits. The term apple of the 
Tropics is more or less appropriate since it occurs in such great 
abundance throughout the Tropics, is in everybody's dooryard, 
and is eaten in the fresh condition, stewed, or made into jellies 
and marmalade. The comparison appears even more close 
when one remembers that the green mango, like the green 
apple, is an important part of the ration of young boys. Wher- 
ever the Mediterranean fruit fly prevails most varieties of 
mangos are seriously attacked by this pest. 

The mango is not only a delicious fruit for consumption 
in the fresh condition but makes an excellent green sauce re- 
sembling green apple sauce in appearance and flavor. The 
fruit when cooked in a green condition jellies readily and 
may therefore be used for jam, jelly, or marmalade. More- 
over, the mango is widely used in the preparation of Chutney 
sauce which contains mango, raisins, tamarind, chili, mace, 
cloves, pimento, salt, and mustard seed. The mango endures 
shipment well and may be held in cold storage without injury 
for a period of 6 to 8 weeks at a temperature of 32° to 40° F. 

The seedling mango tree comes into bearing at about 6 
or 7 years of age. Inarched and budded mangos, however, may 
be brought to bearing within 2 or 3 years. In some cases in- 



118 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

arched trees have borne within i8 months after the process of 
inarching. 

The mango was first planted in Florida on the Keys in the 
forties and on Biscayne Bay, Florida, at about the same time. 
The first trees to develop in Florida were therefore seedlings. 
Grafted specimens of the Mulgoba mango were brought to 
Florida in 1889. The varieties at present grown in Florida 
fruit from May to September. For shipment to the northern 
cities mangos are picked after developing their color and before 
softening. The amount of sugar in mangos range from 11.5 
to 20 per cent., depending upon the variety and stage of ripe- 
ness. Mangos also contain from 0.5 to i per cent, protein and 
therefore in their nutritive value compare favorably with other 
common fruits. 

PAPAYA 

The papaya is native to Central America and the West 
Indies. The type which has made the greatest place for itself 
belongs to the species Carica papaya. The other common types 
of papaya are C. paltata, C. quercifolia, C. erythrocarpa, etc. 
The common papaya, often called papaw, especially in the Eng- 
lish tropical colonies but having no close relationship with the 
common papaw of the central states, occurs everywhere 
throughout the Tropics and subtropics. It grows wild even in 
Florida. The trunk of the papaya tree reaches a height of 25 
feet and bears long stemmed, palmately seven-lobed leaves, 
which are about 2 feet across. The leaves are borne in a 
crown at the top of the tree and fall away as soon as mature, 
leaving a large characteristic scar on the trunk of the tree. 
The trunk is sometimes branched but usually is unbranched 
and erect. The fruit of the papaya varies in size from that 
of a tennis ball to long watermelon-like fruit, weighing some- 
times 18 pounds and measuring 16 inches in length. The fruit 
varies greatly also in shape from perfectly spherical to elon- 
gated or cucumber form and several types of papaya are dis- 



FRUITS AND NUTS 119 

tinctly pentagonal. The fruit of Carica erythrocarpa is similar 
to that of the common papaya but has a red flesh and an ex- 
tremely thin rind. This species has sometimes been considered 
as particularly useful in the production of papain. The fruit 
of C. candamarcensis is about the size of a baseball, rich yel- 
low in color, and five-angled. The flavor is- not particularly 
meritorious. The leaves of this species are cordate, palmately 
five-lobed, and smaller than in the common papaya. C. querci- 
folia is a curious branched, small-fruited papaya with oak-like 
leaves and clusters of ellipsoid yellow fruit i or 2 inches in 
length. 

The papaya is commonly propagated by seed but does not 
come true. The variation in the size, shape, and flavor of 
papayas is therefore without end or restraint. It has recently 
been found that the papaya may be readily grafted. This fur- 
nishes a method of propagating varieties of superior merit. 
After a tree has come to bearing and has shown a desirable 
flavor and size of fruit the tree may be beheaded, after which 
a large number of shoots will appear near the tip of the trunk. 
These shoots may be grafted by the ordinary wedge process 
into the trunks of small seedlings about i inch in diameter. 
No difficulty is experienced in propagating by this method. 

Another method of establishing a desirable type of papaya 
has been for some time under investigation at the Hawaii 
Experiment Station. This method is based on an attempt to 
eliminate the male papaya and to secure a type which will 
produce only hermaphrodite plants. It should be remembered 
that the papaya is normally a diecious tree and that about half 
of the trees are male and half female. The conditions which 
appear in the reproductive organ of the papaya, however, are 
extremely variable. For the most part the flowers on the male 
trees are small and borne in long branching panicles 2 to 5 
feet in length. The flowers on the female trees, on the other 
hand, are large and nearly sessile along the side of the trunk in 
the axils of the leaves. In some cases fruit of superior quality 



120 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

is borne on the male trees. Some male trees bear regularly 
and quite heavily, but the fruit hang suspended on long pedi- 
cles rather than being sessile on the side of the trunk as in 
female trees. Occasionally, a female tree is found in which 
the flowers are perfect. At the Hawaii Experiment Station 
a flower on a tree of this type was self-fertilized and protected 
from cross-pollination. The seed obtained from the resulting 
fruit were all planted and as soon as the trees came into bearing 
a selection was made of the most desirable type and on this tree 
the flower was again cross-pollinated and a second generation 
of trees obtained. This second generation included 454 trees 
and a careful examination of these trees showed that 95 per 
cent, were self-fertile. This gives reason to hope that within 
a few more generations a self-fertile type will be established 
which will obviate the necessity of cross-pollination and prevent 
the endless variation which occurs from this method of 
propagation. 

The papaya comes into bearing perhaps earlier than any 
other fruit tree. Under favorable conditions large ripe fruit 
may be obtained within 11 or 12 months from the time of 
planting the seed. The trunk is succulent and starchy and 
grows very rapidly. For commercial purposes it is perhaps 
desirable to cut down the orchard and replant at the end of 
3 years since the papaya tree has the peculiar habit of tapering 
to a point, after which the fruit is extremely small. The 
papaya is one of the few commercial plants in which it has 
been found possible to change the sex by mutilation. At the 
Hawaii Experiment Station, 22 perfectly sterile, staminate 
papaya trees were beheaded. When the new growth appeared 
on these trees it was found that two of the trees had become 
strictly female trees bearing large fruit. Change of sex in 
papaya has also been produced in one or two instances by other 
investigators. 

The juice of the fruit, stem, and leaves of the papaya con- 
tains an active ferment known as papain, a vegetable pepsin. 



FRUITS AND NUTS 121 

The milky juice pours out of the rind of the green fruit in 
abundance after shallow tapping. In an investigation at the 
Hawaii Experiment Station it was found that if in the early 
morning a dozen shallow lengthwise incisions, yz to j4 inch 
apart, were made in a papaya fruit of good size, enough juice 
would be obtained to make an ounce of dry papain. Crude dry 
papain ordinarily brings about $2 a pound on the market. 
This ferment is even more active than the common ferment 
of the pineapple, but like that of the pineapple is destroyed 
by cooking. The action of the papaya ferment is so well known 
that it is used for various purposes throughout the Tropics. 
If a piece of tough steak is wrapped in a bruised papaya leaf 
the papaya ferment will rapidly make the steak tender. Papain 
has also been used in medicine in dissolving the membranes 
which occur in diphtheria. 

The papaya is eaten for the most part in a fresh condition 
and may be had the year round. In fact, there are always ripe 
and green fruit on the papaya tree. It is also sometimes stewed 
like a squash and eaten as a vegetable. The fruit contains no 
starch at any stage of growth. In a ripe condition the papaya 
contains from 7 to 10 per cent, of sugar and about 0.5 per 
cent, protein. 

GUAVA 

The common or lemon guava (Psidium guajava) is a native 
bush or small tree of tropical America reaching a height of 3 
to 30 feet. The plant has been introduced into all tropical 
and subtropical countries, including Florida, where it runs wild, 
bearing large crops of fruit. In Hawaii and a few other re- 
gions the guava has become a fearful pest necessitating the 
expenditure of large sums of money for its eradication. It 
occurs throughout the Territory of Hawaii in a wild condi- 
tion and the fruit are collected for making guava jam or jelly. 
Guava is cultivated in Florida and California. The leaves 
of this tree are opposite and bright green, the flowers are four- 



122 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

petaled and white, being nearly sessile in the axiles of th€ leaves. 
The fruit is 2 to 4 inches in diameter, with a yellow rind when 
ripe and somewhat resembling a lemon in appearance. The 
flesh is pink and full of seeds. The peculiar aroma of the 
fresh fruit is usually not well liked on first acquaintance. The 
strawberry guava {P. cattleianum) is a small tree attaining 
a height of 20 feet and bearing thicker and smaller leaves 
than lemon guava. The fruit is much smaller, being ^ to 1^2 
inches in diameter and of a dark crimson or maroon color. 
For use as a fresh fruit the flavor is far superior to that of 
the lemon guava but the strawberry guava is less desirable 
for use in jams and jellies. The tree bears within 2 or 3 years 
from seeding and is cultivated in both Florida and California. 
The guava fruit contains 4 to 10 per cent, of sugar and i per 
cent, of protein. As already indicated, the lemon guava is 
extremely well adapted for use in making jams and jellies. 
A considerable industry in this product has been established 
in Hawaii, Cuba, Porto Rico, Florida, and elsewhere. Guava 
jelly or jam is almost universally well liked even on first ac- 
quaintance and there seems to be good prospect for a rather 
large extension of this industry. 

FEIJOA 

The feijoa is a guava-like shrub 5 to 15 feet high, native of 
Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. Its botanical name 
is Feijoa sellowiana. The leaves resemble those of the olive 
and are silver-gray beneath. The flowers are white and with 
four petals and the fruit is about 2 inches long and lYz inches 
thick. The feijoa fruit is of a green color or often with a 
slight crimson blush on one side, and the seed, while dis- 
tributed in large numbers through the pulp of the fruit, as in 
the guava, are less objectionable than guava seed on account 
of their small size. The feijoa has a flavor somewhat re- 
sembling a mixture of the pineapple and strawberry and is 




Roselle; the Thick Calyx Is the Edible Part 




Cherimoyer, One of the Custard Apples 



FRUITS AND NUTS 123 

eaten fresh or in jams or jellies. The bush thrives best in 
a moderately dry climate. It is propagated either by seed or 
cuttings and the usual planting distance is 1 5 by 1 5 feet. Out- 
side of South America the feijoa is cultivated in France, Italy, 
and various other subtropical regions. It was introduced into 
the United States in 1900 and a considerable industry in pro- 
ducing feijoa has been developed in California, where the fruit 
may be found upon the market in season. 



POMEGRANATE 

The pomegranate (Punica granatum) is a bush or small tree 
native to the Mediterranean region and south Asia and is now 
cultivated everywhere in the Tropics and subtropics, including 
the Southern States and California. The pomegranate is 
grown both for ornamental purposes and for its fruit. The 
bush reaches a height of 6 to 20 feet. The calyx of the flowers 
is red and thick, the petals are of an unusually brilliant scarlet 
color, and the leaves are glossy. The fruit when ripe is red, 
orange, or yellow in color, about 2 to 4 inches in diameter, with 
a tough rind and with crimson acid pulp in which the numer- 
ous seed are embedded. In localities north of the Equator 
the pomegranate usually fruits from September to December. 
It is propagated by cuttings. The pulp of the fruit is eaten 
raw or is used in cooling drinks or sometimes condensed into 
sirups. Superior varieties may be perpetuated by budding or 
grafting. Certain varieties of the pomegranate have only a 
few seed and a much larger percentage of pulp than the com- 
mon varieties. The pulp of the fruit contains about 6 per 
cent, of sugar. The rind has a high percentage of tannin and 
has occasionally been used as a source of tannin. The pome- 
granate is commonly allowed to grow in dooryards without 
much attention but where it is cultivated commercially the 
usual planting distance is 8 by 8 feet. 



lU TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

TAMARIND 

The tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is a large rather graceful 
tree, native of tropical Asia and Africa. It is found almost 
everywhere in tropical countries, being considered as a valu- 
able shade tree and source of food. The tamarind is a stately 
leguminous tree with pinnate leaves, like those of the acacia, 
and yellowish-red flowers about i inch across. The tree bears 
jointed moniliform brown pods 2 to 5 inches in length which 
are filled with a sweet sugary pulp much used in cooling drinks 
and for making jam and also a medicine. The tree is propa- 
gated either by seed or cuttings. In trade "Tamarinds" are 
the whole pods of the tamarind tree. This tree fruits gen- 
erally in January and February. On the mainland of the 
United States it is grown in Florida and California. While 
the tamarind is a leguminous tree with characteristic pods, 
it is here classed with fruits because as a food product it is 
used in jams and for other purposes in the manner of fruits. 
The tamarind pods contain 3.5 per cent, of protein and 21 per 
cent, of sugar. In India tamarind seeds are universally eaten 
by the natives. 

LITCHI 

The litchi (Nephelium litchi) is a small tree native of China 
with dense foliage of rich green, shiny leaves, racemes of 
greenish flowers, and clusters of spherical fruit about i inch 
in diameter. The skin of the fruit is wine-red or brown in 
color, and the fruit ripens usually in June. Each fruit con- 
tains one seed in a firm jellylike whitish pulp or aril of de- 
licious flavor. The Htchi is cultivated throughout the Tropics, 
especially in China, Cochin China, and India. In China the 
production of dried litchi fruit is a large industry. Dried 
litchis are shipped to the United States and Europe in con- 
siderable quantities. There are several varieties of quite un- 
like excellence. The tree is best propagated by grafting. 



FRUITS AND NUTS 125 

When grown from seed the Htchi does not fruit until lo years 
of age or older. The fresh fruit contains i]^ per cent, of pro- 
tein and 8.5 per cent, of sugar. In a dried condition the rind 
becomes a thin papery shell, while the sweet pulp shrinks 
away from the rind in a mass surrounding the seed. The litchi 
was brought to Florida in 1886 and is grown in various locali- 
ties in the southern part of the State but apparently has not 
done well. 

The longan {N. longana) is a native of Eastern Bengal. The 
tree and fruit much resemble those of the litchi but the fruit 
is of inferior flavor and value. 

The rambutan {N. lappaceum) is a large fine tree with good 
spread of branches. It is a native of the Federated Malay 
States. The fruit is produced in clusters and is orange or 
red in color and about ^ inch in diameter. Like the litchi, 
the fruit has one seed which is surrounded with a white acid 
pulp of rather agreeable flavor. The rambutan is propagated 
by seed or grafting but as a matter of fact is little cultivated 
anywhere. 

ROSELLE 

The roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) is an annual semishrubby 
mallow about 4 to 10 feet high with palmately five-parted 
leaves and handsome sessile yellow flowers with a crimson 
eye. It is a native of the West Indies and is now quite ex- 
tensively cultivated in India, Queensland, Ceylon, the West In- 
dies, Hawaii, the Philippines, Florida, and California. The 
edible portion of the fruit consists of the greatly thickened 
calyx leaves which are of a brilliant crimson or wine color 
when ripe. The fruit ripens about 3 weeks after flowering. 

The roselle is propagated by seed either planted in the field 
or in the nursery, from which seedlings are later transplanted 
when they reach a height of 6 to 18 inches. The best variety 
of roselle is perhaps the Victor. A poor variety with small 
fruit has been introduced into various countries from Africa 



126 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

but does not seem to be of much promise. North of the Equa- 
tor the roselle is planted in February or March with a spacing 
4 by 4 feet or 6 by 6 feet. The fruit is ready for harvest 
in November and December. In Hawaii it has been found that 
March is decidedly the best month for planting roselle. If 
planted later it ripens its fruit as early as if it had been planted 
in March but the fruit is inferior in quality and the yield is 
considerably reduced. 

In 1914, about 220 acres of roselle were planted on the Island 
of Maui between the young trees of a ceara rubber plan- 
tation. The planting distance adopted was 5 by 5 feet. The 
district in which the roselle was planted was one of high rain- 
fall, averaging about 150 inches per year. The plants yielded 
at the rate of 10 pounds of fruit per plant or approximately 
17,000 pounds of fresh fruit per acre. This is far above the 
average yield, which may be taken as being about 5,000 pounds 
per acre. The roselle fruit will not stand shipment in a fresh 
condition. It must, therefore, be dried on the plantation. 
Moreover, if the atmosphere is humid it is necessary to provide 
artificial heat for drying. If large drying rooms are con- 
structed in which a temperature of 120° to 140° F. can be main- 
tained, the fruit requires from 24 to 48 hours for desiccation. 
In drying roselle it has been found that 10 pounds of green 
fruit make i pound of dried material. 

The only portion of the fruit used for edible purposes is 
the calyx. The seed pod is removed either after picking or 
is separated from the calyx at the time of picking. The har- 
vesting of the crop is the most expensive operation in con- 
nection with the growing of roselle. 

A firm has been organized in Chicago to handle the roselle 
crop on a large scale. This firm has encouraged the produc- 
tion of roselle in Queensland, Hawaii, Mexico, and elsewhere, 
and has purchased all the product in a dried form. In 1914, 
the product amounted to about 500,000 pounds of the dried 
fruit. This material makes a most excellent and delicious 



FRUITS AND NUTS 127 

jam or jelly and has also been used as a basis of a fruit juice 
which is proposed as a rival for grapejuice. The color of the 
juice is a beautiful wine-red and the flavor is quite satisfactory. 

The leaves of the roselle are used to some extent for boiled 
greens in Hawaii and are used in curries in India. Roselle 
seeds are quite commonly used as poultry feed and the bast 
in the bark has been extensively used for fiber. In fact, for 
many years roselle was grown in India chiefly as a fiber plant. 
This matter is discussed under fibers. 

Roselle is a good example of a fruit which, while possessing 
an excellent color and flavor in any preparation for which it 
is used, has little nutritive value. The fresh fruit contains 
about I per cent, of protein, 2 per cent, of acid, and about 0.2 
per cent, of sugar. The flavor of roselle jelly somewhat 
resembles that of the cranberry but is perhaps more delicate. 

MANGOSTEEN 

Many writers on tropical fruits have considered the man- 
gosteen as the most delicious of all known fruits, but this is 
a matter of taste. The mangosteen (Garcima mangostana) 
is a tree of medium size native to the Federated Malay States. 
The leaves are large and glossy green and the tree comes into 
bearing at about 10 years of age. The fruit is purplish-brown, 
spherical in shape, and 2 or 3 inches in diameter. The rind 
is thick, tough, and leathery and surrounds the white edible 
pulp in which the seed are embedded. Each fruit contains 
from one to 4 or 5 seed, but often only one of these seed is 
fully developed. The mangosteen thrives best at low altitudes 
in hot moist districts. It is therefore strictly tropical in dis- 
tribution. The tree which ultimately attains a height of 20 to 
30 feet is of extremely slow growth. Seedling mangosteens 
are inferior in flavor and other qualities to grafted varieties. 
Most mangosteens, however, are seedlings since thus far little 
attention has been given to artificial methods of propagation. 



128 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

The seeds are commonly planted single in pots and the seedlings 
are transplanted when they reach a height of about 2 feet. The 
mangosteen has no commercial importance. 



CUSTARD APPLES 
Sour Sop, Sweet Sop, Cherimoyer, and Bull's Heart 

Among the various species of custard apple known in the 
Tropics the four just named are best known and most widely 
used. The sour sop {Anona muricata) is a native of the West 
Indies. It is a quick-growing shrub or tree which attains a 
height of 15 to 20 feet and bears ovate or reniform fruit 
weighing 4 to 10 pounds and covered with flexible green 
prickles. The pulp of the fruit is white and contains large black 
seeds. The sour sop has a sweet-acid flavor and is eaten either 
out of hand or in ices and cool drinks. The sour sop has 
become widely distributed throughout tropical countries. 

The bull's heart {A. reticulata) is a bushy tree with large 
smooth heart-shaped fruit of a yellow and reddish-brown 
color. This tree is a native of the West Indies but is quite 
widely cultivated in the Oriental Tropics. The fruit is rather 
insipid. 

The sweet sop {A. squamosa) , also called custard apple or 
sugar apple, is a small tree native of Asia and Central America 
and is now widely cultivated in the Tropics and subtropics. 
The fruit is about the size of an apple and the rind of the 
fruit is formed of scales which when ripe break away from 
the white, sweet, granular pulp. The tree thrives best in dry 
localities up to an altitude of 2,500 feet. The sweet sop is prop- 
agated by seed, cuttings, or grafting. The fruit weighs about 
13^ pounds but varies greatly in size in different localities. 
Each fruit contains from 50 to 60 seed. The sweet sop con- 
tains I to 2 per cent, protein and 16 to 18 per cent, sugar. The 
customary planting distance for this tree is about 10 by 10 feet. 

The cherimoyer {A. cherimolia) is a small tree native of 




Olivier Variety of Loouat 



FRUITS AND NUTS 129 

South America and of the West Indies. It bears green round 
fruit 2 to 5 inches in diameter and weighs 2 or 3 pounds, with 
a pitted rind. The opinions expressed as to the flavor of this 
fruit must be purely personal since it is highly esteemed by 
some and detested by others. The cherimoyer is propagated by 
grafting. The tree appears to prefer dry hills. It is widely 
cultivated in Madeira, Canary Islands, and also to some extent 
throughout all tropical countries. It thrives best perhaps in 
stony soil and the planting distance is 10 by 10 feet. There 
is a great variation in the quality and flavor of the fruit of 
different varieties. The best varieties are propagated by graft- 
ing. The fruit commonly contains 1.5 per cent, protein and 
about 18 per cent, sugar. 

Sour sop, sweet sop, cherimoyer, and other custard apples 
grow and fruit in Florida, but the cherimoyer does not always 
fruit well. It has been found that it is pollinated by insects. 
Crosses have been made between the sweet sop and cherimoyer, 
which promise to do better than either of the parent forms. 

LOQUAT 

The loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) is a small or medium- 
sized tree, native of China, and extensively cultivated in Japan, 
India, Australia, Italy, Sicily, and to some extent in Hawaii, 
California, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana. The 
only commercial cultivation of loquat in the United States is in 
California. The loquat is an evergreen tree, rather closely 
branched, and much used as an ornamental as well as for its 
fruit. The leaves are alternate, dentate, densely tomentose be- 
neath, and the small cream-colored flowers are borne in ter- 
minal panicles. The fruit is pear-shaped, about i to i^^ 
inches in length, and lemon-yellow or orange-red in color, with 
I to 4 or more large black seed and a small amount of pulp 
with acid-agreeable flavor. 

The loquat is propagated by seed, cuttings, budding, or graft- 



130 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

ing. Seedling loquats are of poor quality. Cuttings are 
rather slow in development and uncertain. The preferred 
method of propagation is by budding and the quince, or seed- 
ling loquat, is most used for stock upon which to insert the 
bud. In California, the trees are planted about 12 by 24 feet 
apart. Budded trees begin bearing at the age of 4 or 5 years 
and reach full bearing at 10 years of age, when the yield is 
about 200 pounds of fruit per tree. The fruit matures in 
the spring. Loquats are consumed chiefly as fresh fruit but 
are also used in making jelly, jam, and preserves. The fruit 
is well adapted for this purpose, and the flavor is delicate 
and extremely agreeable. There are perhaps 100 or more well 
known varieties of loquat but the varieties most prized in 
California are Early Red, Thales, Champaign, Advance, and 
Victor. The loquat thrives within about the same temperature 
limits as are required by lemons. The fresh fruit contains 4 
per cent, of sugar. 

MALAY APPLE, SURINAM CHERRY, ROSE APPLE 

These three tropical fruits are closely related botanically, 
and it seems desirable, therefore, to refer to them briefly in 
conjunction with one another. 

The Malay apple (Eugenia malaccensis) is a handsome tree 
native to Malaya and attains a height of 20 to 50 feet. The 
tree bears dense racemes of red flowers in graceful pompons 
and later a profusion of bright red fruit with a white pithy 
pulp. In Hawaii, the fruit is called Mountain apple. Each 
fruit has one large seed. The tree is propagated by seed but 
as a matter of fact has not been widely cultivated. In some 
parts of Hawaii it is a common forest tree occurring in large 
areas. The fruit of the Malay apple is only sparingly seen on 
the market. The skin is unusually thin and delicate and is 
therefore easily injured in shipment. It can be shipped only 
short distances, perhaps within the limit of 24 hours. The 



FRUITS AND NUTS 131 

fruit is eaten fresh, in which state it has an agreeable but not 
very pronounced flavor, or may be used in making vinegar. 
The fruit contains 6.8 per cent, of sugar. 

The Surinam cherry (Eugenia micheli) is a small tree na- 
tive of Brazil. It bears a round, ribbed fruit i inch in diame- 
ter, of bright red color, somewhat resembling the tomato. The 
pulp of the Surinam cherry is too acid to eat fresh, but is 
quite extensively used in preserves. This fruit is also called 
the Brazil cherry. The tree bears small white flowers and is 
propagated by seed. The fruit contains i per cent, protein and 
6 per cent, sugar. 

The rose apple (E, jamhos) is a tree of medium size, native 
of India. It bears fragrant rose-colored fruit of sweet-acid 
flavor, and is i^ inches in diameter. This fruit is much used 
in preserves. The tree thrives in moist districts up to an alti- 
tude of 3,ooo feet. It is cultivated in Ceylon and to a less 
extent in Hawaii and other tropical countries. The fruit is 
usually of inferior quality. The flowers of this tree are large 
and bear numerous long white stamens. The rose apple in 
fresh condition contains I2 per cent, sugar. It is grown in 
California for its foliage or ornamental flowers but does not 
fruit in that state. 

CAPE GOOSEBERRY 

The Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) is native of Peru 
but is now grown everywhere, even in some of the Northern 
States in this country. It is a straggling, more or less upright, 
herbaceous plant belonging to the same family with the potato 
and tomato. On the mainland of the United States it usually 
attains a height of lo to i8 inches, but in Hawaii and other 
tropical regions it reaches a height of 13^2 to 5 feet, with a 
spread of 6 to 10 feet. The leaves are irregularly toothed 
and heart-shaped at the base and very pubescent. The flowers 
are pale yellow and about ^ inch in diameter. The fruit when 
ripe is greenish-yellow, spherical, and the size of large marbles. 



132 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

The fruit is surrounded by a loose papery husk. It is eaten 
either raw or in sauce, pies, and jam. In Hawaii the Cape 
gooseberry is called poha and is cultivated to a considerable 
extent. The fruit ships well and is sent to Honolulu in large 
quantities from the Island of Hawaii. The fruit contains 2 
per cent, protein and 8 per cent, of sugar. In a fresh condi- 
tion the Cape gooseberry is decidedly laxative. 

PASSION FRUIT 

A number of closely related species of passion vine bear 
edible fruit. The water lemon (Passifiora laurifolia) is a 
climbing vine, native of the West Indies, which bears yellow 
fruit about the size and shape of a goose egg. The rind is 
tough and leathery and the numerous seed are embedded in 
a gelatinous pulp. This species of passion fruit is widely 
cultivated in Hawaii. The passion fruit so widely cultivated 
in India and Australia is Passifiora edulis and has a purple 
rind. The granadilla {P. qiiadrangularis) is perhaps the 
most vigorous grower of all the species of passion fruit. It 
is a climbing vine, native of tropical America, and has become 
quite generally distributed throughout the Tropics. The fruit 
is oblong and attains a large size, being often 6 to 8 inches long 
and 3 or 4 inches in diameter. 

The water lemon carries well in cold storage and may be 
safely held at a temperature of 32° F. for 3 months or longer. 
Their fine foliage and handsome flowers make all of these 
species suitable for ornamental purposes. 

MAMMEE APPLE 

The Mammee apple (Mammea amerkana) is a native of 
South America and the West Indies. The tree reaches a height 
of 35 to 60 feet and bears white fragrant flowers and spherical, 
round, brown, hard-shelled fruit 3 to 5 inches in diameter, 



FRUITS AND NUTS 133 

with one or more seeds and a yellow, sweet aromatic pulp. 
The fruit is eaten fresh, stewed, or preserved, but the flavor 
is not commonly well liked. The flowers of the Mammee 
apple yield by distillation an essential oil used in liqueurs under 
the name eau de creole. The tree is propagated by seed. It 
thrives well in Florida, where it bears fruit of the usual size 
and quality. 

WAMPI 

The wampi (Clausena lansium) is closely related to citrus 
belonging in the same family with these fruits. It is a small 
tree attaining a height of i8 to 20 feet with a luxuriant de- 
velopment of smooth pinnates leaves and small dense panicles 
of white fragrant flowers. The wampi is native of southern 
China. The fruit develops in clusters like the grape, the in- 
dividual fruit being nearly spherical and the size of a large 
marble. The rind is rough and leathery. The fruit contains 
I to 3 seed and the juicy pulp possesses an agreeable acid aro- 
matic flavor. The wampi is not well suited for dessert fruit 
but may be used preferably in preserves and for flavoring 
meat curries. For this purpose both the leaves and the fruit 
may be used. The tree is propagated either by seed or by 
layering, 

AMATUNGULA 

The amatungula or Natal plum (Carissa grandiHora) is 
a South African fruiting shrub which was introduced by the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture and was later received for 
experiment in Hawaii, This plant has become quite widely 
distributed as a hedge and ornamental as well as a fruit bush. 
The bush has a densely branching habit and bears bright 
green leathery leaves and numerous thorns on the small 
branches. The flowers somewhat resemble those of the or- 
ange, being a pure white and slightly fragrant. The fruit 
is egg-shaped and about the size of a plum, the color being 



134 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

a brilliant crimson. The flavor of the fruit is acid and slightly- 
bitter and is considered agreeable by some and practically 
worthless by others as a fresh fruit. It may be eaten either out 
of hand or may be used in the manufacture of jams and 
jellies. In India and Ceylon the fruit is quite widely used for 
pickling and in preserves. The Natal plum contains about 12 
per cent, of sugar. 

STAR APPLE 

The Star apple is a handsome tree, native of West Indies, 
with unusually fine foliage, which is dark, shiny green above 
and golden brown beneath. The botanical name of the tree 
is Chrysophyilum cainito. There are several varieties of the 
Star apple, some of which bear purplish and others green fruit. 
The fruit is filled with a white and rather sticky latex until 
ripe, when the jellylike pulp around the seed has an agree- 
able sweet flavor. The name is due to the radiate or star- 
like seed cavities which are conspicuous when the fruit is 
cut across. The Star apple is not only a very satisfactory orna- 
mental but the fruit is distinctly agreeable in flavor and 
occupies a rather important place in the list of tropical fruits 
which have not attained a commercial standing. North of the 
Equator the fruit commonly ripens from February to April. It 
may be safely held in cold storage and endures shipping very 
well. The Star apple contains 2.3 per cent, protein and 4.5 
per cent, sugar. 

DURIAN 

The durian (Durio sibethinus) is a large, handsome pyrami- 
dal tree, native of the Malay Archipelago, and commonly 
cultivated in the Oriental Tropics. The durian fruit is round 
or oval and thickly armed with prickles. It is borne on the 
older branches, is of a yellowish color when ripe, and of an 
extremely ofifensive odor to all except those who have acquired 
a taste for the fruit. The durian bears fruit twice a year. 




Rose Apple, Flowers and Fruit 




Portion of Passion Vine with Fruit 



FRUITS AND NUTS 135 

The spiny fruit rind when broken open exposes a five-segment 
fruit with a pulp of civet odor surrounding the seed. Superior 
varieties are propagated by layering. The durian thrives only 
in a hot, moist climate and the seed remain viable only a few 
days after removal from the fruit. The durian fruit weighs 
from 5 to lo pounds. It is a conspicuous example among many 
which could be named of tropical fruits about which violently 
opposed opinions exist as to their flavor. 

CERIMAN 

The ceriman (Monstera deliciosa) is a large epiphytic 
creeper, native to Mexico, with large leaves i8 to ^6 inches 
long on long petioles and with numerous elliptical perfora- 
tions. The flower is large, white, and calla-like and the fruit 
appears as a conical spadix 5 to 8 inches long and 2 inches in 
diameter. It is covered with hexagonal scales which are easily 
removed when the fruit is ripe. In fact, the looseness of the 
scales is about the only external evidence of the ripeness of the 
fruit. After attaining nearly full size, the fruit may require 5 
or 6 months in ripening. The flavor of the ceriman is not 
easily described. It is somewhat like that of a mixture of 
honey, pineapples, and bananas, and to most persons is rather 
sickish sweet. The plant is propagated by cuttings. It may 
be grown in Florida in half shade like pineapples, and in 
Florida the fruit ripens in 14 to 18 months after flowering. 
The ceriman fruit contains i per cent, protein and 16 per cent, 
sugar. 

JUJUBE 

The jujube (Zisyphus jujuba) is a slow-growing, medium- 
sized, thorny tree, native of New Zealand and Federated Ma- 
lay States. It attains a height of 30 to 50 feet and bears ovate 
leaves which are tawny beneath and small flowers in axillary 
cymes. The white, yellow, or red fruit is i to 2 inches long 



136 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

and 3^ to I inch in thickness. The jujube is generally prop- 
agated by seed and the fruit is borne in October or Novem- 
ber. It is much liked by the natives in India and elsewhere, 
but Europeans and Americans do not acquire a liking for the 
fruit except as a deliberately cultivated habit. This is due to 
the peculiar and somewhat ofifensive odor of the fruit. The 
jujube is grown somewhat sparingly in California, Florida, 
and other Southern States. It is used in the preparation of 
sirups, confections, and lozenges. The dried fruit of Z. vul- 
garis is also an article of commerce. 

SAPODILLA 

The sapodilla (Achras sapota) is a tree 25 by 30 feet high 
with thick, leathery, shiny leaves and native of Central America 
and the West Indies. It bears two crops of fruit annually, in 
August and February. The gum and tannin are quite abun- 
dant in the green fruit which in appearance resembles the 
potato, but the ripe fruit is edible. The fruit contains in the 
ripe condition a brown, juicy pulp surrounding the black seeds. 
The sapodilla is propagated by seed or grafting and thrives 
up to an altitude of 3,000 feet. The tree makes a very slow 
growth. The latex of the fruit and stem is the source of chicle 
which is discussed under rubbers and gums. The sapodilla 
thrives in Florida as far north as Palm Beach. Fruit varies 
greatly in size and flavor. It appears on the markets of 
Florida and other Gulf States and occasionally in Washington 
and New York markets. 

CARAMBOLA 

The carambola (Averrhoa caramhola) is a small tree, native 
of the Molucca Islands. It bears a pointed fruit about 4 inches 
long with three pronounced wings or angles. The flavor is 
sweet, acid, and very agreeable. The fruit is used in jelly- 
making and in sherbets and cool drinks or may be eaten out 



FRUITS AND NUTS 137 

of hand. There is a great range of flavor among the varieties 
of carambola, but the two chief types are the sweet and the 
sour carambola. The tree may be used as an ornamental on 
account of its graceful habit of growth and its handsome pin- 
nate leaves which are sensitive to the touch. The carambola 
contains from 3 to 5 per cent, of sugar. A. bilimbi is a closely 
related species of tree, bearing leaves with 13 to 35 leaflets 
and a less acutely angled fruit which is extremely acid and 
used for the most part only in pickles. The caramb'la grows 
satisfactorily in Florida. Either the carambola or bilimbi may 
be propagated by the shield bud method or by cuttings. 

BAEL FRUIT 

The bael fruit is borne on a small spiny tree (Aegle mar- 
melos) which is native to India. The fruit is surrounded with 
a green hard woody shell about 2 to 6 inches in diameter and is 
composed largely of a sticky aromatic pulp which is sometimes 
relished for its flavor but is used chiefly for its medicinal 
value in dysentery. The bael fruit is propagated by seed. The 
tree is deciduous and endures a temperature as low as 20° F. 
The orange-colored transparent gummy pulp possesses an acid- 
sweet flavor not liked by most Europeans and Americans ex- 
cept when used with other fruits in sherbets. The bael fruit 
is under experiment in some of the Southern States. 

OHELO BERRY 

The ohelo berry is the most important fruit-bearing heather 
in Hawaii. Its botanical name is Vaccinium reticulatum. It 
is therefore in the botanical sense a Hawaiian cranberry. On 
the mountain slopes of the Hawaiian Islands the ohelo berry 
occurs on wide areas at elevations of 4,000 feet or higher. It 
is a low shrub with stiff crowded branches, densely covered 
with leaves. The leaves are oblong or ovate and leathery 



138 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

and the flowers are reddish-green, appearing solitary in the 
axils of the leaves. The ohelo berry is spherical, about ^ inch 
in diameter and of a yellow or rose color. It is used chiefly in 
pies and sauce. The ohelo berry contains 0.4 per cent, protein 
and '^i-'j per cent, sugar. 

JAPANESE PERSIMMON 

The Japanese persimmon, native of China and Japan, is a 
handsome tree reaching a height of 40 feet and bearing fine 
foliage and yellowish-white flowers. Its botanical name is 
Diospyros kaki and the tree is therefore closely related to the 
common persimmon of the Southern States. In recent years 
the fruit has become a familiar object on the markets of most 
large cities. It is orange or reddish in color, variously shaped, 
but mostly oval and about 3 inches in diameter. There are 
usually 2 seeds in each fruit but some varieties are seedless. 
The Japanese persimmon is quite generally cultivated through- 
out the Tropics and to a smaller extent in California and the 
Southern States. 

WI APPLE OR OTAHEITE APPLE 

This is a large, symmetrical, and handsome tree (Spondias 
dulcis), native of the Society Islands. The fruit is spherical, 
yellowish, about 2 inches in diameter, with one large seed sur- 
rounded by an acid pulp. There is much fiber throughout the 
pulp and the flavor is not particularly attractive, although the 
fruit is much liked by Orientals and Polynesians. Wi apple 
contains about 10 per cent, of sugar. 

ALMOND 

Doubtless all readers are familiar with the fact that most 
of the common nuts of commerce are raised in northern cli- 
mates. This fact becomes sufficiently apparent by the mere 



FRUITS AND NUTS 139 

reference to chestnut, chinquapin, hazel nut, hickory, pecan, 
walnut, and butternut, all of which are grown in temperate 
climates. 

The almond {Prumis amygdalus) has been grown experi- 
mentally in some of the Northern States and would perhaps 
yield a crop of nuts far north of the present limits of its com- 
mercial cultivation if it were not for the fact that it flowers 
very early in the spring. The almond is native of the Medi- 
terranean region and the tree and flowers are much like those 
of the peach. There are two general types of almond, the 
bitter and sweet, the bitter almond being used in making flavor- 
ing extracts and prussic acid. The bitter almond is grown 
chiefly in Mediterranean countries. In the United States only 
sweet almonds of the soft-shelled group are grown and the 
only commercial industry of the almond is in California. There 
are about 1,500,000 almond trees in California, with a product 
of 3,000 tons of nuts per year. Among the 25 or more varie- 
ties which have been tested in California the Nonpareil, Ne 
Plus Ultra, and Languedoc are perhaps to be preferred. The 
cultural methods suitable for almond trees are the same as 
those which are used in peach production. The tree blooms 
earlier, however, and is not as hardy as the peach. The nuts 
are commonly bleached by sulphuring. Large quantities of al- 
monds are produced in the Crimea, Spain, Australia, Tunis, and 
various other subtropical and tropical countries. In 1914 the 
United States imported 19,000,000 pounds of almonds. 



BRAZIL NUT 

This tree forms quite extensive forests along the Amazon 
and Orinoco, where it reaches a height of 100 to 150 feet 
and a diameter of 3 to 4 feet. The botanical name of the tree 
is Bertholletia excelsa. The leaves of the tree are long, witli 
wavy edges and the round fruit is 4 to 6 inches in diameter. 



140 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

This fruit is inclosed in a thick woody shell which contains 
about one dozen angular seeds or Brazil nuts. The tree is 
propagated by seed or layering. The Brazil nuts of commerce 
come chiefly from South America but the tree is also quite 
widely cultivated in the Oriental Tropics, particularly in Ceylon 
and the Federated Malay States. 



PILI NUT 

The Pili nut (Canarium commune) is a large and beautiful 
tree with an unusually extensive development of buttressing 
roots. The tree bears a purple plum-like fruit containing a 
seed or kernel of excellent flavor. The Pili nut is native of 
Malay and at present is quite largely exported from the 
Philippines. It is also cultivated in Java, where it is called the 
Java almond. It is an excellent avenue tree, is propagated by 
seed, and thrives up to an altitude of i,ooo feet. 

CASHEW NUT 

The Cashew nut is borne on a tree 30 to 40 feet high, native 
of the West Indies, and known to botanists as Anacardium 
occidentale. It is now cultivated throughout the Tropics. The 
parts of the fruit are rather anomalous in their structure and 
arrangement. The swollen stalk of the fruit is known as the 
Cashew apple and is used for preserves. The Cashew apple 
has an acid astringent flavor and is 2 to 4 inches long. The 
kidney-shaped nut, about i inch long, is borne at the tip of 
the Cashew apple. The nut is commonly roasted and used as 
a flavoring material in confectionery and for other purposes. 
An intoxicating drink, known as "kaju," is made by ferment- 
ing the Cashew apple. All parts of the fruit are used for 
medical purposes. The Cashew nut thrives in the dry districts 
of tropical countries and near sea level. 




Amatungula or Natal Plum, Fruit and Flower 




Sapodilla from Florida 



CHAPTER X 
STARCHY FOODS 

The starchy foods in common use by the inhabitants of 
tropical countries include not only the majority of the familiar 
starchy foods of northern climates but also a number of others 
which are grown exclusively or chiefly in the Tropics. In 
most tropical countries corn, wheat, barley, oats, millets, buck- 
wheat, and sorghum are of considerable importance. For 
example, there are 6,000,000 acres in India devoted to the 
production of corn, and India stands third or fourth in the 
wheat-producing countries of the world. Sorghum is widely 
used in some parts of the Tropics as a human food. In India, 
for example, sorghum seed is extensively employed in making 
bread. In addition to many of the leguminous food plants 
familiar to the inhabitants of cold climates the farmers of the 
Tropics also give a great amount of attention to pigeon pea, 
chick pea, kulthi, lablab bean, soy bean, kidney bean, cowpea, 
lentil, etc. Among the root crops of importance to the in- 
habitants of the Tropics mention may be made of potatoes, 
sweet potatoes, eggplant, carrot, radish, turnip, beet, etc., as 
well as a considerable variety of roots not grown in cold 
climates. 

Notwithstanding the fact that nearly all the famihar starchy 
food plants are grown in tropical countries, the relative im- 
portance of these plants is very different in the Tropics from 
what it is in cold climates. A brief discussion of the more im- 
portant starchy foods in general use in tropical countries is 
given in the following paragraphs. 

142 



STARCHY FOODS 143 



RICE 



Rice is the most important of the world's cereals. To more 
than one-half of the population of the world, rice is the chief 
staple food. This plant, known to botanists as Oryza sativa, 
is supposed to be a native of tropical Asia. It is now culti- 
vated throughout the Tropics and subtropics as well as in the 
warmer parts of the Temperate Zones. Rice is not only the 
most important cereal but should probably be considered the 
most important food plant in the world. The world's crop of 
rice is about 90,000,000,000 pounds, of which 63,000,000,000 
are produced in British India, 9,000,000,000 in Java, 7,000,- 
000,000 in Japan, 3,000,000,000 in Siam, 2,000,000,000 in Corea 
1,500,000,000 in Formosa, 1,500,000,000 in the Philippines, 
741,000,000 in the United States, 740,000,000 in Italy, and 
smaller quantities in other countries. In 1914, Louisiana pro- 
duced 11,800,000 bushels, Texas 8,000,000 bushels, Arkansas 
3,500,000 bushels, California 800,000 bushels, and South Caro- 
lina 179,000 bushels. 

There are two general groups of rice — lowland and upland 
rice. Upland rice is grown without flooding or artificial irri- 
gation in climates with a fairly abundant rainfall. Lowland 
rice is grown only under a flooding system or as an aquatic 
plant. The varieties of rice are almost innumerable. More 
than 4,000 varieties have been reported in Bengal alone. Thou- 
sands of varieties bear names but the synonymy of these varie- 
ties is much confused and at present it is quite impossible 
to conjecture the number of really distinct varieties of rice. 
Most of these varieties are of strictly local distribution and 
have been so since the dawn of history. They may therefore 
be geographical races. Strictly local varieties of rice are known 
to have been grown in Siam in the same locality since records 
have been kept of the civilization of that country. Some of 
these varieties are known also to have peculiar flavors and 
physical properties unlike any other varieties. The varieties of 



144 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

rice differ in size, shape, and color of the grain, character of 
straw, and fruiting panicle, chfemical composition, and flavor 
and culinary properties. The chief varieties of rice grown 
in the United States are Goldseed, White rice, Japan rice, and 
Honduras rice. 

In the Southern States rice fields are from 60 to 80 acres in 
extent on level lands, and i to 2 acres in area on sloping lands. 
The seed is sown broadcast or in drills from March 15 to May i 
at a rate of i to 3 bushels per acre. A light irrigation is given 
to germinate the seed. Later the water is turned on when the 
rice is 8 to 10 inches high. The water is then maintained at 
a depth of 3 to 6 inches, being withdrawn to facilitate hoeing. 
The final irrigation continues until a week before harvest. In 
small fields and in marsh soils rice is cut with a sickle, but in 
large fields rice is harvested with reapers. 

In nearly all tropical countries the method of growing and 
harvesting rice is that which has been practiced for centuries by 
the Orientals. The Chinese method of growing rice may be 
briefly described as an illustration of the painstaking hand 
labor which this race devotes to its farming operations. Rice 
seed is first sprouted in bags. Within 2 or 3 days a slight 
sprout appears and the sprouted rice is then planted in nursery 
beds. The young plants are removed from nursery beds at the 
age of about 20 days and planted in the field at distances vary- 
ing from 8 by 8 inches to 12 by 12 inches both ways. For this 
purpose the field is lined off in squares and three or more 
plants are placed in each hole. The tips of the leaves of 
the young plants are cut off before being transplanted. The 
rice is then irrigated with flowing water for about four-fifths 
of the time from transplanting to harvesting. Rice is har- 
vested within 3 to 7 months from the time of seeding, depend- 
ing upon the variety. The harvesting and threshing of the 
rice is for the most part done by hand work. The Chinese 
harvest their rice with a sickle. Each handful of straw is cut 
in two near the middle of the straw in order that the grain 




Dasheen Tuber, Trinidad Variety 



STARCHY FOODS 145 

heads may be laid upon the butts of the straw, thus facili- 
tating the process of curing. The grain heads when dry are 
tied into bundles and shocked, after which the material is 
removed from the field on the backs of laborers. Threshing 
is accomplished largely by tramping with horses and the 
grain is cleaned by winnowing. The justification for all this 
hand labor on the part of the Chinese and other Orientals is 
the fact that transplanted rice gives a yield fully double that 
of rice planted directly in the field. The tedious method of 
planting, harvesting, and threshing rice according to the Chi- 
nese and Oriental custom would, of course, not appeal to the 
rice planters of the Southern States. The method, however, 
rests on a solid foundation in the countries where it is prac- 
ticed. In China, for example, where the economic stress of 
dense population has been keenly felt for centuries, acres of 
land are less numerous than hungry mouths to be fed. It 
has become necessary, therefore, to produce more rice on a 
fixed number of acres. 

In Ceylon, broadcasting of rice is occasionally practiced in 
a few localities but the Chinese method generally prevails 
throughout the Oriental Tropics. The yield of rice varies from 
700 to 3,000 pounds per acre in tropical countries. In the 
United States the yield commonly ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 
pounds per acre. In the Tropics two crops of rice annually 
are possible with certain varieties. With other slow de- 
veloping varieties only one crop a year is obtained. In China 
and Japan, particularly in Japan, rice is grown in a continuous 
rotation with legumes. During the short intervals between 
rice crops, legumes are planted for the purpose of obtaining as 
much vegetable substance as possible between the harvesting 
of one crop of rice and the planting of the next crop. By the 
careful observation of this custom the fertility of the soil has 
been kept up unimpaired. 

In fertilizer experiments with rice at the Hawaii Experi- 
ment Station, it was found that rice requires its nitrogen in 



146 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the form of ammonia or inorganic nitrogen which may be 
ammonified and not in the form of nitrate. These experiments 
were continued on seven successive crops of rice in the field 
and were repeated in soil and sand cultures in pots. It was 
clearly demonstrated not only that rice requires its nitrogen 
in the form of ammonia rather than nitrate but that rice cannot 
be grown to maturity in the soil or cultures where nitrogen 
occurs only in the form of nitrates. In these experiments the 
addition of nitrate of soda depressed the yield of rice below 
that obtained on check plats without any fertilizer, while the 
application of sulphate of ammonia to the extent of 150 to 
300 pounds per acre doubled the yield over that of unfertilized 
plats. These results are readily understood when it is remem- 
bered that rice is grown as an aquatic crop, being submerged 
under water 3 to 6 inches deep and that therefore nitrification 
cannot take place in the puddled soil. Organic nitrogen in 
leguminous green manuring crops, however, can be readily 
ammonified under these submerged conditions and from the 
ammonia the rice plant derives the nitrogen necessary for its 
development. It has also been demonstrated that practically 
all of the nitrogen of the rice plant is taken up from the soil 
by the time the plant is two-thirds grown. 

Rice is too starchy a food for use as an exclusive ration by 
man. The organic phosphorus and the proteid in rice are 
largely deposited in the outer portion of the grain, which is 
unfortunately removed in the complete milling of rice. It is 
in many ways to be regretted that so strong a demand has been 
developed for highly polished rice and for white wheat flour, 
for in milling these grains to meet the market demands some 
of the most important food elements are removed. The general 
reader is doubtless familiar with the numerous scientific in- 
vestigations which have connected the eating of a too exclusive 
diet of highly milled rice with the development of the disease 
of malrmtrition known as beri-beri. While there may be doubt 
as to the universal connection of an exclusive milled rice diet 



STARCHY FOODS 147 

with beri-beri, it has been definitely shown that the disease is 
one of malnutrition and that it is extremely common among 
the inhabitants of the Oriental Tropics who live too exclusively 
on milled rice. Experiments have shown that valuable organic 
phosphorus compounds are located in the bran and outer por- 
tion of the rice grain. 

Among the by-products of the rice industry mention may be 
made of sake, a highly alcoholic drink made from rice, par- 
ticularly by the Japanese, and also rice bran, middlings, and 
hulls. The Chinese also make a rice whisky called samshu. 
Rice bran and middlings are important feeding stuffs for 
domesticated animals. Rice hulls are useless for feeding pur- 
poses. In fact, they contain so much silica as to be injurious 
or positively dangerous when used in feeds. Complaints have 
occasionally been made that rice hulls have been ground by 
unscrupulous feed dealers and mixed with other feeding stuffs. 
Some experiments have been made with rice hulls in the manu- 
facture of explosives. The hulls are also of use as packing 
material and for cheap insulation in the walls of icehouses, 

MILLETS 

A great variety of plants which may be conveniently grouped 
under the general head millets are used in the Tropics chiefly 
as human food. These plants belong to several species of cul- 
tivated grasses, including Italian millet, broom-corn millet, 
Japanese millet, guinea com, pearl millet, ragi (Eleusine cora- 
cana), Job's tears (Coix lachryma) , etc. These plants, roughly 
grouped under the term millets, may perhaps be considered as 
second to rice in importance as a source of human food in the 
Oriental Tropics. Millet seed is a staple food of about one- 
fourth of the world's population. In India, more than 40,000,- 
000 acres are devoted to the production of millets for human 
food. In Japan, China, and Corea also enormous quantities 
of millet are produced. Many of the poorer class of natives 



148 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

in Japan and elsewhere cannot afford to buy rice and there- 
fore live upon millet as their staple food. Millet seed is not 
only used in making bread, but is cooked in various other 
forms and in many mixtures of other food materials. 

QUINOA 

When the Spanish explorers first came to South America 
they found the natives making common use of quinoa (Cheno- 
podium quinoa) as a food. This is an annual plant native to 
Peru, but occurring throughout the west coast of South Amer- 
ica and northward into Central America. The plant is closely 
related to the common weed lamb's quarters and yields a 
heavy crop of edible seeds. Quinoa has also been cultivated in 
Europe, California, and the Southern States, where it has 
been grown for its leaves, which are used like spinach. 

Quinoa attains a height of 4 to 6 feet, and the leaves are 
thin and distinctly three-lobed. The seeds are used especially 
in Peru and Chile in soups, in making bread and cakes, and in 
brewing a kind of beer. Quinoa ash has been mixed with the 
leaves of cocain by the native laborers of South America in 
order to give the leaves more flavor for chewing purposes. 
There are at least three varieties of quinoa, the white, red, and 
black-seeded. The white-seeded variety is most esteemed in 
Lima and is the only one cultivated in Europe. The seeds 
contain 38 per cent, of starch, 5 per cent, of sugar, 19 per cent, 
of protein, and 5 per cent, of fat. The seed crop matures 
within 5 or 6 months after planting. 

Quinoa has furnished food for millions of natives in South 
America. It has quite commonly been known as petty rice 
and by other names. The seeds are of about the size of a white 
mustard seed. Flour made from them resembles oatmeal. The 
red-seeded variety of quinoa contains a bitter principle which 
has sometimes been used in medicine. The seed of quinoa is 
also widely fed to poultry. This plant has not thrived well in 
California, where it seems to be too subject to insect attacks. 



STARCHY FOODS 149 

SAGO 

Sago is derived from a graceful palm {Metroxylon rumphii), 
native of Malay Archipelago and somewhat resembling the 
coconut palm in general appearance. The tree reaches a height 
of 25 to 40 feet, and, like so many others of the palm family, 
bears long, graceful, pinnate leaves. Sago is an important 
source of food in southern India, Malaya, Borneo, Java, Cele- 
bes, Sumatra, Ceylon, and elsewhere. The trees grow wild in 
swampy land or are sometimes cultivated to a small extent. 
The sago palm if left to itself will live 15 to 20 years, gradually 
dying after the flowering period. For food purposes the tree 
is felled just as it begins to flower, usually at about 10 years 
of age. 

The sago palm is commonly propagated by suckers from 
the old stumps. When harvested for food purposes the trunk 
is at once cut into 3- foot lengths which are then split length- 
wise. The soft fibrous pith is removed by a process of re- 
peated washing and straining somewhat in the manner in which 
cassava starch is obtained. The fiber is separated from the 
starch which settles out of the water and is purified by a fur- 
ther washing. Granulated sago is the form in which this 
product is commonly seen on the market. It is prepared by 
making a paste of the original sago meal, by mixing it with 
water, and pressing the paste through a sieve with meshes of 
the proper size. The trunk of the sago palm tree yields from 
800 to 1,200 pounds of sago. Several other food products of 
a similar nature are used to some extent under the name sago. 
For example, the seeds of Cycas circinalis of Ceylon are of 
a starchy nature and are used in making a kind of sago which 
is eaten by the natives. 

CASSAVA 

Cassava, also called manioc plant, is a small shrubby peren- 
nial related to the Ceara rubber tree and occurring under two 



150 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

common species, the bitter cassava {Manihot utilissima) and 
sweet cassava {M. aipi). These plants are native of South 
America but are now grown throughout the tropical and sub- 
tropical world. The plants attain a height of 6 to 8 feet and 
bear palmately divided leaves, with 7 divisions in the bitter 
cassava and 5 divisions in the sweet cassava. The bitter cas- 
sava is more widely used in the Tropics than is the sweet cas- 
sava. All varieties of both species may contain prussic acid 
but the bitter cassava contains the highest percentage of this 
poison. The prussic acid in cassava is located just under the 
bark of the roots and is easily removed in the preparation of 
starch and tapioca from these roots. Cassava is an important 
human food product, being used by the natives of India and 
other tropical countries like sweet potatoes and is also exten- 
sively employed as a stock food. 

Cassava is commonly propagated by stem cuttings. The ma- 
ture stems are cut into sections 8 to 10 inches long and partly 
buried in the soil, being inserted commonly in a slanting direc- 
tion at regular intervals in rows. The root or rhizomes are 
ready for harvest 7 to 12 months after planting. The cut- 
tings are commonly planted in rows 4 feet apart and about 16 
inches in the row. In Florida, where considerable attention 
has been given to cassava, the yield is about 65^ tons of roots 
per acre but exceptional yields of 10 to 12 tons have been ob- 
tained. The yields in tropical countries are, as a rule, higher 
than those obtained in Florida. The roots of a single plant 
sometimes weigh from 25 to 50 pounds. These roots vary 
greatly in shape, growing sometimes in the form of long strands 
2 or 3 inches in diameter, and at other times in the form of 
huge conical thickened masses. 

Cassava is used for a number of purposes. The milky juice 
of the roots is concentrated by boiling into a thick sauce which 
is used, after seasoning, by the natives of Guiana under the 
name "cassaree" as a sauce or for preserving meat. The 
tubers may be peeled and boiled or baked as food for man and 




Breadfruit Tree in Full Bearing, Honolulu 



STARCHY FOODS 151 

beast. It is in the manufacture of starch, however, that cas- 
sava finds its chief importance. In making starch the tubers 
are peeled and grated, the milky juice is expressed, the whole 
grated mass is then washed and strained until the fiber is re- 
moved, after which the starch is freed of other impurities by 
repeated washings and dried in the sun or in earthen ovens. 
Tapioca is made from cassava starch by heating the starch 
gently on iron plates until it flocculates into the well known 
tapioca granules. The United States imports of tapioca and 
sago in 19 14 amounted to a value of $1,640,000. The world's 
supply of tapioca is derived largely from Brazil and the Straits 
Settlements. As alread}'- indicated, cassava has been grown for 
many years in Florida with success. Little attention, however, 
was given to the crop in Florida as a source of starch and 
tapioca. The roots are mostly used as a stock feed after 
cooking. It has been found that tapioca roots may be used 
with economy in fattening beef and pork. 

ARROWROOT 

The true arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) is a native of 
tropical America belonging to the same family with ginger. 
The arrowroot is a perennial herb with large lanceolate leaves 
and white root-stocks or rhizomes i to 2 feet in length and i to 
2 inches in diameter. The plant is propagated by divisions 
of the rhizomes in rows 3 feet apart and i foot apart in 
the row. The tubers may be harvested about 8 to 12 months 
from the time of planting. A good yield of arrowroot is 5 
tons of tubers per acre. The tubers contain 25 per cent, 
starch. The yield of prepared arrowroot per acre is about 
1,500 pounds. Arrowroot starch may be obtained by grat- 
ing, washing, and straining the tubers by the method used with 
cassava. Like cassava, also, the plant seems to exhaust the 
soil quickly, thus making necessary a system of rotation. 
The best quaHty of arrowroot comes from Bermuda, but the 



152 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

largest supply is received from St. Vincent, Barbados, and 
Ceylon. Arrowroot starch is considered to be very easily di- 
gested and is generally recommended for invalids who have 
found difficulty in digesting the starch from potatoes and other 
plants. 

Tacca (T. pinnatiiida) is a stemless plant, native of Ceylon 
and the Pacific Islands, bearing 3-parted leaves on petioles i to 
3 feet long. A scape of small greenish flowers is developed 
at maturity and potato-like tuberous roots which yield a starch 
equal to arrowroot and called pia by the Polynesians. This 
plant was formerly much cultivated in Hawaii. It is still 
cultivated to a large extent in India, Africa, and in various 
other tropical countries. The tubers are dug after the leaves 
fall and are grated, washed, and dried much like sago and 
cassava. The plant is propagated by the division of the roots 
and is commonly planted in rows 3 feet apart and 18 inches 
apart in the row. 

SWEET POTATOES 

Sweet potatoes grow everywhere throughout the Tropics 
and subtropics. They occur in a great number of varieties 
with white, yellow, and purple flowers, and with all shapes 
and sizes of leaves and of tubers. The tubers vary in size 
from a few ounces to several pounds and in color from pure 
white to dark purple. The flesh of the tubers of some varie- 
ties is also purple and in addition white-fleshed and yellow- 
fleshed forms are abundant. The sweet potato escapes from 
cultivation and grows almost as a weed in some tropical coun- 
tries, as, for example, in Cuba. In the Tropics the sweet 
potato is propagated chiefly by stem cuttings. The tubers 
mature within 3 to 7 months after planting. The sweet potato 
is an extremely important food product in all tropical coun- 
tries since it may be obtained the year round and bears trans- 
portation well. Sweet potatoes have been shipped from Hawaii 
to the mainland during the off season, particularly May to 



STARCHY FOODS 153 

July, when a good quality of sweet potato will bring from 4 
to 8 cents per pound wholesale. 

Lleren (Calathea allouya) is a perennial herb, native of 
South America, belonging with the same family as ginger 
and attaining a height of 2 feet. It develops long canna-like 
leaves and numerous potato-like tubers. Lleren is propagated 
by crown divisions and is planted in rows 4 feet apart and 2 
feet apart in the row. The tubers may be harvested about 10 
months after planting. Lleren is much liked by the natives in 
the West Indies but the flavor is disagreeable to most white 
persons. 

YAM 

Many species of Dioscorea, or yams, native of East Indies 
and West Indies, are used for food in tropical coimtries. These 
plants are perennial, herbaceous climbers with underground 
tubers varying in size in different species from a few inches 
to 2 feet in length and from a few ounces to 40 pounds in 
weight. Some species of yams also have aerial tubers. Yams 
are most extensively cultivated in the West Indies and South 
America, where they constitute an important source of food. 
They are eaten boiled or baked, like potatoes. Yams are 
propagated by a division of the crown and the usual planting 
distance is 2 by 4 feet. Pole supports are used for the vines. 
The tubers are harvested about 7 to 10 months after planting. 
The common wild yams of Hawaii are known as uhi and hoi. 
Yams contain 15 to 24 per cent, of starch and some of them 
are of fairly good flavor. In the East Indies the favorite yam 
is D. globosa. The largest yielder is D. alata. The common 
yam of the West Indies is D. sativa. 

QUEENSLAND ARROWROOT 

The Queensland arrowroot (C^nna edulis) is a native of 
the West Indies but is perhaps most widely cultivated in Aus- 



154 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

tralia and the Pacific Islands. It is a perennial herb belonging 
to the family Scitaminese and bears large broad leaves with 
a pronounced bronze sheen. The plant stands about 3 to 6 
feet high and develops 5 to 10 purplish tubers at the base. 
These tubers are cooked and eaten like taro or are used in 
the production of the "Queensland arrowroot" of the trade. 
The starch grains in this product are larger and more easily 
soluble in water than those of the true arrowroot and the 
material is especially recommended for children and invalids. 
Queensland arrowroot is propagated by crown divisions and 
the planting distance is 2 to 4 feet. The crop matures within 
6 to 10 months after planting. In Porto Rico an average yield 
is about 15 tons of roots per acre. In experiments in Queens- 
land it has been found that about 9 tons of roots yield i ton 
of prepared arrowroot. In India it appears that the Queens- 
land arrowroot prefers a more sandy soil than the true arrow- 
root. In that country the Queensland arrowroot is planted 
in rows 6 or 7 feet apart and 4 or 5 feet apart in the row. It 
has been found that roots may live in the ground for two sea- 
sons, if desired, without suffering loss. A yield of 12 to 40 
tons of roots per acre has been obtained in India. 



UDO 

In recent years some interest has been awakened in a native 
Chinese plant known as udo {Aralia cordata). This plant has 
long been widely cultivated in Japan and elsewhere in the 
Orient. It has been introduced into California and the South- 
ern States. Udo is a shrubby perennial suitable for orna- 
mental purposes on account of its leaves. The plant reaches 
a height of 10 feet, with inconspicuous flowers in spherical um- 
bels like those of our common sarsaparilla or ginseng. The 
root stalks are large and fleshy. Udo is propagated by seeds 
or cuttings and the planting distance is 4 by 4 feet. The young 
shoots are blanched by various shading devices. Shoots which 




Chayote, Fruit and Portion of Stem 



STARCHY FOODS 155 

spring from 3-year-old roots should attain a height of 12 to 18 
inches and a diameter of i inch. The shoots must be cut into 
strips and soaked in water for an hour or more before boiling. 
They are then used in soups, salads, and on toast. Few 
people, however, outside of the Orient have acquired a liking 
for this plant. The roots are extensively used as food in Japan 
and China. 

DASHEENS, YAUTIAS, TAROS, TANIERS 

A number of related plants belonging to the family of 
aroids develop large starchy tubers which have long been an 
important source of food in tropical countries. The botanical 
name of dasheen is Colocasia antiquorum esculentum. This 
plant is called taro or kalo by the Hawaiians and other Poly- 
nesians. The botanical name of the yautia or tanier is Xan- 
thosoma, of which several species have been cultivated, 
particularly sagittifolium, atrovirens, and violaceimi. Certain 
varieties of yautia are commonly referred to the genus Alo- 
casia, but since this group of plants apparently does not produce 
flowers its relationship is still doubtful. 

In Hawaii there are 300 or more varietal names of taro 
and even after allowance is made for synonyms, it is probable 
that there are from 40 to 60 distinct varieties of taro in Hawaii. 
Dark taros make the best poi. This group of taro includes the 
varieties known as Lihua, Ele-ele, Palii, etc. The pink and 
white taros give the largest yields. This group includes 
Kuoho, Wehiwa, etc. Mafia is the commonest variety of yel- 
low taros. The taro is propagated by suckers called hulis, 
which develop from the top or side of the tubers. There are 
two main groups of taro from a cultural standpoint, the upland 
and irrigated taros. Upland taro, like upland rice, is grown 
without irrigation in climates with a reasonably high rainfall. 
Irrigated taros, on the other hand, are grown in precisely the 
same manner as rice. The areas planted to irrigated taro are 
surrounded by dikes just as in rice fields for holding the water 



156 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

at a certain depth. The water is kept flowing by constant 
intake and outtake. 

Taro is planted at distances varying from 30 by 30 inches 
to 40 by 40 inches. In a study of taro growing carried on by 
the Hawaii Experiment Station it was found that within cer- 
tain limits the wider the planting distance the larger the tubers 
and the higher the yield per acre. Taro tubers mature in 8 to 
14 months from planting, according to the variety used. The 
yield varies from 6 to 18 tons of tubers per acre. 

The stems of some varieties are cooked as a green vege- 
table. The tubers, however, are the product for which taro 
is raised. These tubers are eaten boiled, like potatoes, or baked 
in taro cakes, but chiefly in the form of poi. Poi is one of the 
universal and characteristic food products of the Polynesian 
race. It is easily prepared from taro by boiling the taro tubers 
and mashing them with the addition of water into a smooth 
sticky paste. This material is then eaten fresh or is allowed 
to ferment. The poi is commonly considered an easy food 
product to digest. Many white settlers in Hawaii acquire a 
liking for the product, but it cannot be said to possess an agree- 
able flavor or appearance. An excellent quality of flour may 
be prepared from taro tubers by cooking, desiccating, and 
grinding the material. A considerable business in the sale of 
taro flour was once worked up by the taro growers of Hawaii, 
but was later allowed to lapse. Taro tubers may also be 
shredded in a fresh condition and dried in strands about the 
size of a lead pencil. This material may then be used as a 
breakfast food. In that form the product has an agreeable 
flavor. It requires boiling for at least an hour, however, and 
changes from a white to a purple color as a result of boiling. 

With the recent introduction of the dasheen, or taro, into 
Florida, some attention has been given to a method of blanch- 
ing the shoots of the taro plants. It has been found that they 
may be readily blanched after which they can be eaten like 
asparagus. While the name taro is universally applied to these 



STARCHY FOODS 157 

plants by the Polynesians, botanists have preferred the name 
dasheen. All the taros, dasheens, and yautias belong together 
in the same family with the calla lily. The flowers of the taro 
are large, white, and calla-like. The leaves, moreover, greatly 
resemble those of the calla lily, but are, of course, much larger. 
All of these plants are succulent and some of them, as just indi- 
cated, produce large leaves like the caladium or elephant ear. 
The leaf stem or petiole varies in length from i to 6 feet. In 
the yautia the leaf blade is sagittate, or arrow-shaped, with an 
open sinus. In the taro the leaf is peltate with the leaf stem 
attached about half way from the center to the basal margin. 
Taros have been cultivated for centuries in Japan and China 
and the Polynesian Islands. The areas devoted to these plants 
are of considerable extent in all tropical countries and the 
tubers therefore constitute an important article of food. The 
starch in the different varieties of taro ranges from 6 to i8 per 
cent. 

BREADFRUIT 

The well known breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa) is one of the 
most beautiful ornamental trees of the Tropics. It is a native 
of the Pacific Islands, but has gradually been distributed quite 
widely through other parts of the world. The tree possesses 
a graceful habit of growth and develops large, shiny, incised 
leaves and a globular fruit 4 to 6 inches in diameter. The tree 
attains a height of 30 to 60 feet and is highly prized as a shade 
tree as well as a source of an important food product. Most 
varieties of breadfruit have no seed. The tree is propagated by 
root suckers. 

Breadfruit is much used in the Orient in curries. In all 
tropical countries where it occurs breadfruit is also eaten baked 
or roasted as a vegetable. In a baked form it has a very agree- 
able flavor which usually appeals to the new comer in the 
Tropics at first acquaintance. Breadfruit may also be roasted, 
dried, and ground into flour and is used in making poi. A. 



158 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

nobilis of the lower parts of Ceylon is a large breadfruit tree 
with columnar fruit 6 to 8 inches long and 2 inches in diam- 
eter. This fruit is largely eaten by the natives with curries. 

The jackfruit (A. integrifolia) is a huge tree native of 
Southern India which bears ellipsoid green fruit covered with 
hexagonal scales. These fruits vary in size from lo to 6o 
pounds and are borne on the trunk and branches of the tree. 
The fruits are sometimes eaten by the natives, especially the 
nut-like seeds in the stringy pulp. The pulp, however, is fibrous 
and filled with an extremely sticky latex which coagulates into 
a rubber-like material. 

CHAYOTE 

Chayote is a common and familiar cucurbit {Sechium edule), 
native of West Indies and now cultivated generally in the 
Tropics. It is a perennial creeper with pear-shaped, solid, one- 
seeded fruits weighing 2 or 3 pounds. The fruit is cooked and 
eaten like a squash, which it resembles in flavor. The plant 
is propagated by planting the whole ripe fruit containing the 
seed. Supports are required for the vines which climb to great 
heights and long distances. The chayote bears fruit about 3 
months after planting. The tuberous roots reach the size of 
20 pounds and are prepared and eaten like yams. The roots 
contain 20 per cent, of starch and are of fairly good flavor. 
The chayote is also widely used as a hog feed. Chayote is quite 
extensively grown in Porto Rico, Mexico, tropical America, 
Algeria, East Indies, Hawaii, and the Philippines. Under fav-- 
orable conditions one vine will bear 300 to 500 fruits a season. 

LOTUS 
The Chinese lotus (Nelumbium speciosum), native of Asia 
and Africa, is a water lily with a large, circular, peltate leaf, 
resembling those of the Victoria regia, and white or rose-col- 
ored flowers 5 to 8 inches in diameter. The plant bears long, 
moniliform or sausage-like rootstocks, and a curious receptacle 



STARCHY FOODS 159 

which contains large seed. Both the seeds and rootstocks are 
eaten, especially by the Chinese. The rootstocks contain about 
70 per cent, of starch. The cultivation of lotus in Hawaii is 
a rather extensive industry among the Chinese and Japanese. 

SEAWEED 

A large number of seaweeds are used as human food in 
Malaya, China, Japan, and the Polynesian Islands. The edible 
seaweeds include the brown, red, and blue-green species. In 
Hawaii, seaweeds are known as limus. Hundreds of tons of 
limus, or seaweeds, are annually consumed in Hawaii, No 
luau, or native feast, is complete without limu. More than 70 
species of seaweeds are used in Hawaii as food. Formerly, 
the Hawaiians ate limus raw. Now they are eaten either 
cooked or raw. Limus contain in a fresh state i to 3 per cent, 
of protein and 10 to 14 per cent, of starch. Limus yield about 
75 per cent, of their dry weight in gelatine or agar-agar. 

Tl 

The well known ti (Cordyiine terminalis) of Hawaii, Poly- 
nesian Islands, Malaya, and China is a short-stemmed plant 
with a tuft of lanceolate, leathery, shiny leaves about 2 to 4 
feet long and panicles of greenish flowers. The whole plant 
attains a height of 5 to 15 feet. The root is a thick, starchy, 
saccharine structure. The roots are roasted and eaten as a deli- 
cacy. When roasted they have a sweet flavor resembling that 
of caramelized sugar. The roots are also fed to pigs and other 
stock and are quite extensively used in fermenting a strong 
alcoholic drink. In fact, ti roots are a common source of illicit 
moonshine alcohol in Hawaii. The ti leaves are generally used 
as plates at native feasts and for wrapping food and cut flow- 
ers. Ti leaves have also been shown to be a valuable cattle 
feed. In some of the Hawaiian dairies in the mountain sections 
ti leaves constitute an important part of the ration of cows. 



CHAPTER XI 

TOBACCO 

Tobacco is by no means a crop which is restricted to the 
tropical regions of the world. In fact, it is cultivated through- 
out the Tropics, subtropics, and Temperate Zones. It was 
originally, however, a native of tropical America and the vari- 
ous forms, strains, and varieties of cultivated tobacco are con- 
sidered as having originated from Nicotiana tabacum and N. 
rustica. The world's crop of tobacco is at present about 2,750,- 
000,000 pounds. On the contiguous mainland of the United 
States about 950,000,000 pounds are produced, in British India 
450,000,000, in Russia 255,000,000, in Java and Sumatra 180,- 
000,000, in Hungary 145,000,000, in Japan 111,000,000, in the 
Philippines 100,000,000, in Cuba 75,000,000, in Brazil 65,000,- 
000, in Mexico 34,000,000, in Argentina 31,000,000, in Algeria 
21,000,000, in Porto Rico 17,000,000, and smaller quantities in 
various other countries. 

Columbus, on his first voyage of discovery, found the natives 
of Cuba smoking tobacco. He made some inquiry regarding 
the nature and properties of the weed and carried the news 
of the use of this plant to Europe. Tobacco was introduced 
into the botanic gardens of Lisbon in 1560, into France a little 
later, and in England about 1595. There is an enormous mass 
of literature relating to the discovery of the use of 'tobacco, 
its introduction into European countries, and the interesting 
events which were connected with its adoption by the popula- 
tion of the European countries. A strict government monopoly 
is maintained on tobacco in France, Austria, Italy, Roumania, 
Turkey, and a few other countries. 

160 



TOBACCO 161 

Tobacco is everywhere cultivated as an annual, but in the 
Tropics may live over for several years. The plant ranges in 
height from 2 to 7 feet and bears viscid leaves and stems with 
a heavy odor and terminal panicles of whitish, pale pink, or 
rose pink flowers. The seed pods are well filled with seed of 
such minute size that it requires about 400,000 seed to weigh 
an ounce. Tobacco is grown commercially on a great variety 
of soils and in all kinds of climates from Canada to the Equa- 
tor. Both soils and climate, however, greatly affect the growth 
of the plant, the physical properties of leaf, the chemical com- 
position of the leaf, and the aroma. Cuban, Philippine, Su- 
matra, Hawaiian, and Egyptian tobaccos would doubtless 
dift'er greatly in aroma if grown in these different countries 
from the same seed sample. The vuelto abajo tobacco of Pinar 
del Rio, Cuba, is a case in point. This famous tobacco is used 
as a filler, and despite numerous attempts it has not been 
possible to duplicate it even in other parts of Cuba. Various 
strains of tobacco have been introduced into Hawaii from 
different countries, and while these tobaccos have grown satis- 
factorily they have shown different physical characters and a 
different flavor and aroma from those which develop from the 
same strain in the country from which they were imported. 

Tobacco seed is sown in seed beds. These beds are almost 
universally prepared by a special treatment of sterilization by 
burning. The burning of logs on the surface of the seed bed 
or the production of a similarly high temperature in the soil 
by any other means has the effect not only of sterilizing the 
soil with regard to fungous diseases which might attack the 
yotmg plants, but improves the tilth of the seed bed so that 
the growth of the seedlings is more rapid as well as more vigor- 
ous. The seeds germinate in 10 to 14 days. It requires about 
one spoonful of seed to plant each 100 square yards of seed 
bed. The seedlings are transplanted at the age of 5 or 6 weeks 
in rows 3^ to 4 feet apart and 14 to 24 inches apart in the 
row. In most tobacco districts the plants are topped as soon 



162 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

as the flower button appears. In some localities the lower 4 
or 5 leaves are removed at the same time. This process is 
commonly called priming. The leaves mature about 80 to 120 
days from the time of transplanting. 

The process of curing and fermenting tobacco has received 
a great amount of technical attention from chemists and biolo- 
gists, and satisfactory methods have been worked out for dif- 
ferent tobacco districts in the various tobacco producing coun- 
tries of the world. The essential points in the process of curing 
tobacco have been thoroughly investigated by Dr. Garner of 
the United States Department of Agriculture, and his investi- 
gations have been utilized in the following account of tobacco 
curing. 

In all cases the first requirement for good curing is that the 
tobacco be ripe when harvested. The young leaf has a rich, 
deep green color, and the food-manufacturing function of the 
leaves is about at its maximum when the flower head begins to 
appear and removal of this flower head stimulates the plant 
to a further effort to reproduce itself by sending out secondary 
shoots or suckers. These, however, are at once removed by 
the grower. Under such treatment the substance of the leaf 
is not carried back into the stalk, but remains in the body of 
the leaf. The accumulation of a surplus food supply largely 
in the form of starch causes the appearance of a lighter shade 
of green and lightish or yellowish spots on the leaf which are 
characteristic of the ripe leaf. The proper stage of ripeness, 
however, like most of the other technical details connected 
with the growth and curing of tobacco, can be learned only by 
long practical experience. 

If the ripe leaf of the tobacco is quickly dried by heat it 
will never develop the characteristic aroma and flavor of to- 
bacco. The development of this aroma and flavor may also 
be prevented by subjecting the leaf to anesthetics. The process 
of curing is therefore considered as consisting essentially in 
forcing the leaves to undergo a process of slow starvation. 



TOBACCO 163 

Two general methods are in vogue in harvesting tobacco and 
managing it in the curing shed. In one of these methods the 
ripe leaves are picked from the stalk and threaded on strings 
attached to sticks which allow room for the leaves to hang 
without touching one another in the curing shed. By the other 
method the leaves are left attached to the stalks and the whole 
plant is removed to the barn at a stage when most of the leaves 
are in the best condition of ripeness. Most tobacco is cured 
in the air without the help of artificial heat except during wet 
weather. Ventilation is provided in curing barns under regu- 
lation in order to prevent the too rapid drying of the leaves. 
When the tobacco is first harvested the leaves contain consider- 
able starch, but during the curing process this starch disap- 
pears. The leaf is considered as fully cured when all of the 
green color has disappeared and the full development of the 
yellow color has taken place. At this time the leaves are rather 
uniformly yellow or brown. The tobacco leaf loses about 75 
per cent, of its weight in curing, the greater part of this loss 
being water. In cold or unusually wet weather artificial heat 
has been utilized to considerable extent, especially with wrap- 
per tobacco. The method has been applied less to filler and 
binder tobacco. The heat is generated by small charcoal fires 
and by various other methods. In the process known as flue 
curing, systems of pipes are provided in the curing shed to 
carry off the fuel gases and the smoke does not come in con- 
tact with tobacco during the curing process, which requires only 
a few days. Fire curing is a term applied to the method used 
largely in the dark tobacco districts of Virginia, Kentucky, and 
Tennessee. This method consists in the use of open fires in 
the curing shed and the tobacco is, therefore, in contact with 
the smoke produced by the fires. This method is used largely 
in curing export tobaccos. 

When tobacco leaves are cured on the stalk the resulting loss 
of weight is due not only to the evaporation of moisture, but 
also to the fact that some of the substance of the leaf is trans- 



164) TROPICAL AGRICtJLTURE 

ferred to the stalk during the process of curing. It has been 
shown by experiment that tobacco leaves lose from lo to 12 per 
cent, more if dried on the stalk than if removed from the stalk 
when green. 

Nearly all commercial tobacco is derived from Nicotiana 
tabacum. The tobacco from this species includes the Mary- 
land, Virginia, Paraguay, Cuban, Philippine, Seed-leaf, Lata- 
kia, Turkish, Chinese, and certain other sorts of tobacco. In 
this species the lobes of the corolla are pointed and the leaves 
are nearly sessile. N. rustica has distinctly petioled leaves and 
blunt corolla lobes. This species is the source of Htmgarian, 
Brazilian, and certain of the Asiatic tobaccos and is always 
of an inferior grade. The trade terms for the commercial sorts 
of tobacco are numerous and the system of classification of 
grades of tobacco is very complicated. Any thorough discus- 
sion of this classification would lie outside the field of the gen- 
eral reader. The terms export and manufacturing tobacco are 
used by tobacco dealers to indicate tobaccos used in the manu- 
facture of smoking and chewing tobacco, cigarette tobacco, and 
snuff. The terms export and manufacturing are, therefore, 
used to distinguish these tobaccos from cigar tobacco. The 
tobacco which is imported into the United States consists prin- 
cipally of cigar filler tobacco from Cuba and cigar wrapper 
tobacco from Sumatra and Borneo. Importations of Turkish 
tobacco have also considerably increased in recent years. The 
yield of tobacco varies greatly according to locality and the 
type of tobacco. It ranges from 500 to 2,400 pounds of cured 
leaf per acre. There is an active competition in the produc- 
tion of high-grade tobaccos, particularly fillers, and it has been 
found that the grower must have at least a 50-acre crop in 
order to cure a sufficient quantity for proper fermentation. In 
the high-grade tobaccos this fermentation is brought about by 
tying the cured leaves in bunches called hands which are then 
piled in heaps on the floor of the fermentation house. The 
heaps may be 4 feet wide by 8 or 10 feet long and from 4 to 6 



TOBACCO 165 

feet deep. The piles are torn down and rearranged from time 
to time in order to maintain as nearly as possible a uniform 
temperature throughout the mass of tobacco. 

The grading of tobacco is a matter of technical skill acquired 
only by years of practice. Accurate grading requires a quick 
eye for minute differences in color. Skilled tobacco graders 
separate what to the uninitiated appears to be a rather uniform 
grade of tobacco into 15 to 20 color grades. The leaves are also 
graded according to size and shape. In the system adopted 
in Sumatra only about 5 per cent, of a carefully cured crop 
is considered worthy of being classed as first-grade wrapper 
tobacco. 

The agricultural methods adopted in the production of to- 
bacco vary greatly in different countries. In general, tobacco 
is known to be a crop which rather rapidly exhausts soil for 
further crops of tobacco. In some of the tobacco districts of 
the Southern States a system of rotation has been adopted 
whereby tobacco appears on the same land only once in 3 or 4 
years. In some of the tropical countries it is considered unde- 
sirable to plant the same land to tobacco except after an 
interval of 7 or 8 years. It will thus be apparent that the 
cultivation of tobacco is a special business requiring experience 
in all phases of the industry and necessitating definite plans of 
rotation so that the yield and quality of the crop may be main- 
tained. 



CHAPTER XII 

FIBER PLANTS 

A LARGE percentage of the fiber plants of the world are native 
of the Tropics and are cultivated to the greatest extent within 
the boundaries of the Tropics, although some of them, for in- 
stance the conspicuous example of cotton, are grown far out- 
side of the limits of the Tropics. The fiber plants which are 
grown on a commercial scale in cold climates are not very 
numerous, flax and hemp being the chief ones aside from cot- 
ton. Both flax and hemp are also grown in the Tropics, but 
flax has never assumed commercial importance as a tropical 
crop, while hemp is grown in tropical countries chiefly as a 
drug plant and not for its fiber. The commercial fibers of the 
world are derived from various botanical structures of fiber 
plants. The fibers are obtained mostly, however, from seed- 
lint, bark-bast, fruit-husks, and leaves. The fibers discussed 
in this chapter include those used for thread, cords, ropes, 
cables, fabrics, paper, brushes, mats, hats, baskets, implements, 
etc. Only the important ones and those which have made a 
place for themselves in the markets of the world or in native 
industries have been discussed. The number of plants from 
which valuable fibers could be obtained is very large. A recent 
account of the fiber plants of the Philippines mentions 750 
such plants in the Philippines alone. An attempt to discuss 
all of the plants from which fibers could be obtained would 
make this chapter resemble a textbook of systematic botany 
rather than a brief account of the fibers which are really of 
importance in the world's commerce. 



FIBER PLANTS 161 

COTTON 

Cotton, beyond question, is the most important of all known 
fiber plants. The original home of the cotton is uncertain, but 
it was probably India or Persia. Cotton has been well known 
in India since 800 B. C. and perhaps earlier. All wild species 
of cotton are tropical and perennial, but in commercial plan- 
tations the crop is grown almost universally as an annual. 

While the true wild forms of cultivated cottons are not 
known botanically, names have been given to certain groups of 
commercial cottons. Gossypium barbadense is commonly con- 
sidered as including Sea Island and Egyptian cottons. Both of 
these forms of cotton produce yellow flowers, smooth seed, 
that is without short fuzz, and a long silky lint or fiber. G. 
peruvianwm includes the Peruvian, Bolivian, and Kidney cot- 
tons. These varieties of cotton develop very large leaves, yel- 
low flowers, smooth seed, and a harsh lint of medium length. 
The American Upland cottons are referred by botanists to G. 
hirsutum. These forms are invariably grown strictly as an- 
nuals, the flowers are white, and the seeds fuzzy. G. herbac- 
enm is a closely related species, which includes the short staple 
Indian and Chinese cottons. Many hybrid cottons have been 
produced and distributed, particularly in tropical countries 
with claims of unusual merit. Among these mention may be 
made of Caravonica and Mamara cotton. The Caravonica cot- 
ton is supposed to be a hybrid between the Sea Island and 
Kidney cottons, although the statements regarding its origin are 
somewhat at variance with one another. Three types of this 
cotton may appear from the same sample of seed, namely, a 
practically pure Kidney cotton with the seeds of each boll 
cemented together, a type like Sea Island, and another com- 
monly called Caravonica wool, which appears like a true hybrid 
or blend between Sea Island and Kidney cottons. The Cara- 
vonica and Mamara cottons are not adapted to cold climates for 
the reason that a season of 7 or 8 months is required for the 



168 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

production of the crop. They may, however, be pruned back 
so as to produce three crops in two years under tropical con- 
ditions. 

The total world production of cotton in 191 5 was about 20,- 
000,000 bales of 500 pounds each, of which the United States 
produced 11,000,000 bales. The crop of the United States 
has varied considerably in recent years, having been as high 
as 16,000,000 bales in one year. The United States was the 
first country to engage in the business of cotton production in 
an aggressive manner, and has constantly occupied a dominant 
position in this industry. As an indication of this dominant 
position of the United States it may be well to quote the figures 
of the cotton production for 1913. In that year the United 
States produced 14,157,000 bales, British India 3,857,000, 
Egypt 1,565,000, Russia 657,000, Brazil 277,000, Mexico 200,- 
000, and Peru 110,000. Texas produces about 31 per cent, of 
the total cotton crop of the United States. In the order of 
importance in cotton production, Texas is followed by Georgia, 
Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, South 
Carolina, North Carolina, and Tennessee. Sea Island cotton 
is grown in the United States only along the coast of South 
Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Egyptian cotton is grown to 
some extent in Arizona and California. All other cotton dis- 
tricts of the United States are occupied with Upland cotton. 

The total export of cottonseed oil from cotton-producing 
countries is about 45,000,000 gallons, of which the United 
States exports 35,000,000 gallons. Cottonseed oil is further 
discussed under oils. 

Rather determined efforts are being made in various parts 
of the tropical and semitropical world to increase the acreage 
of cotton. Possibilities for a considerable extension of the cot- 
ton industry exist in India, Egypt, southern Russia, and in the 
European colonies in Africa. Whether or not the cotton in- 
dustries in these countries will be sufficiently great to take from 
the United States the leadership in this industry will depend 



FIBER PLANTS 169 

upon various economic considerations which it would be quite 
futile to discuss at the present time. 



JUTE 

Jute is perhaps the fiber of second commercial importance. 
The plant is called by botanists Corchorus olitorius or C. cap- 
sularis, and is native of India, China, Formosa, Federated 
Malay States, etc. Jute is an annual plant with long slender 
stems 8 to 12 feet high and rather conspicuous yellow flowers. 
The seed is sown broadcast or in nursery beds from which the 
young seedlings are transplanted. About three months elapse 
between seed time and harvest. In harvesting jute the stems 
are cut or pulled just at flowering time. The stems are then 
retted in water until the trash readily separates, that is for 4 
to 30 days, after which the fiber is cleaned by hand. The acre 
yield of jute fiber ranges from 1,200 to 3,000 pounds. Jute 
fiber is used for a great variety of purposes, but chiefly for 
gunny bags, cordage, carpets, cloth, curtains, etc. In Bengal, 
there are at present about 2,000,000 acres cultivated to jute and 
the total export of jute fiber from India is more than 15,000,- 
000,000 pounds annually. There are many fibers better than 
the jute, but the great prominence of jute fiber in manufactur- 
ing industries is due to the ease of cultivation and the lack of 
mechanical or technical difficulties in manipulating and spin- 
ning the fiber. 

SISAL 

Sisal is an agave and native of Mexico and Central America. 
True sisal is known as Agave sisalana, while henequen is known 
as A. elongata, and maguey as A. cantata. Sisal is ordinarily 
planted about 8 by 8 feet both ways. The first leaves mature 
at the age of 3 to 4 years and the plant sends up a tall floweringi 
shoot or pole at the age of 7 to 9 years. Sisal is propagated 
dther by suckers or pole plants. Suckers are young plants 



170 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

which develop at the base of the mother plant or grow up from 
the roots of the old plant at some distance away. The pole 
plants are the peculiarly modified structures which develop 
from the flowers on the branched inflorescence of the flower- 
ing pole. About 3,000 pole plants develop on each pole. 

During the whole life of the sisal plant about 180 leaves are 
developed and these leaves yield on an average 10 pounds of 
fiber. The bearing period of sisal is about 5 years and the an- 
nual acre production is approximately 600 pounds of dry fiber. 

Sisal is extremely drought resistant and will thrive where 
most cultivated crops would utterly fail. It would withstand 
absolute droughts of 6 months' or more duration. In fact, the 
young suckers may be left exposed to the sun on the surface of 
the soil for a period of 6 months without losing their vitality. 
On account of the drought-resistant properties of sisal and its 
general hardy nature, little or no cultivation is absolutely re- 
quired. In some of the larger tropical plantations the pole 
plants or suckers are merely set a few inches into the soil by 
means of a bar or similar instrument and without any previous 
plowing or preparation of the soil. In this position plants are 
allowed to grow and produce their crops of leaves without fur- 
ther attention. It has been found, however, that sisal will 
come into bearing at least one year sooner if the ground is 
thoroughly plowed before planting. In Hawaii, it has been 
found that sisal will grow in highly manganiferous soil where 
pineapples and most other crops would fail utterly. Sisal 
thrives fairly well in a great variety of soils. Near Honolulu 
there is a small plantation in coral limestone and another in 
manganiferous soil. The sisal appears to thrive equally well 
in both these soils. 

Various machines have been used in removing the sisal fiber 
from the leaves. The one which has given best satisfaction is 
called a raspador. In this decorticating machine the leaves are 
grasped by one end, while the pulp from the remainder of the 
leaf is crushed and carried away by a revolving wheel, after 




Sisal Plants in the Bahamas 




Kapok Tree with Pods in Nassau 



FIBER PLANTS 171 

which the process is reversed to permit the removal of the pulp 
from the portion of the leaf first clamped by the machine. 
After decortication the fiber is at once dipped in water and 
spread out to dry. In periods of extreme drought the leaves 
may become so dry that the pulp is not readily removed from 
the fiber. In such cases decortication is assisted by a small 
stream of water allowed to flow upon the leaves while passing 
through the machine. 

The fiber when dry is pressed into bales usually of 600 
pounds' weight. Well-cleaned sisal fiber in the bale is an ex- 
tremely attractive product. The waste pulp obtained in decor- 
ticating sisal leaves has been fed to cows in a few localities, 
but is extremely acid and unpalatable material. The pulp is 
useless as a source of alcohol for the reason that the percentage 
of fermentable matter in it is too low. The acid in sisal is 
lactic acid and the percentage increases from the base to the 
tip of the leaves. This acid is so corrosive that the parts of 
the decorticating machine which come in direct contact with 
the juice are made of gun metal to resist corrosion. The acid 
juice is also injurious to the skin and the workers are provided 
with rubber gloves. 

The wholesale price for sisal in recent years has ranged from 
4 to 8 cents, while the cost of production is about 3 cents. 
Since an acre yield is not above 600 pounds per year it will 
be seen that the acre return from sisal is very low and that 
the margin of profit is extremely narrow. For this reason 
sisal is a profitable crop only when grown in large areas. 

As compared with sisal, henequen lives longer but brings 
a lower price on the market. The leaves have spines along 
the lateral edges, while sisal leaves do not, and these spines 
furnish some difficulty in handling and decortication. Hene- 
quen, on the other hand, gives a larger yield, sometimes as 
much as 1,200 pounds of fiber per acre per year. 

Mexico produces 120,000 tons of henequen annually. 
True sisal is produced chiefly in the Bahamas, East Africa, 



172 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Hawaii, and Java. The leaves of the maguey are less rigid 
than henequen, but have lateral spines like the latter. Maguey- 
is produced chiefly in the Philippines, Java, and British India. 
The Philippines export about 6,000 tons of maguey fiber. At- 
tempts have sometimes been made to secure maguey and even 
sisal fiber by retting, but the fiber is always discolored and 
greatly injured by this process. All sisal fiber is therefore re- 
moved by a decorticating machine. Several other species of 
Agave are sometimes used locally for fiber, but hardly on a 
commercial scale, for example, A. americana and A. decipiens. 
The former produces a fiber known as pita or aloes fiber. Istle 
or Tampico fiber is derived from A. heteracantha and A. lo- 
phanta. These plants have thick, rigid, spiny leaves and pro- 
duce a coarse fiber which is used for cordage and bagging. 

Among the fiber plants related to sisal it may be well to men- 
tion cajun (FurcrcFa cubensis) and Mauritius hemp (F. gigan- 
tea). Mauritius hemp is indigenous to tropical America. The 
leaves are 5 to 8 feet long and spiny, but not so rigid as sisal 
leaves. The leaves contain about 2^ per cent, of fiber, which 
is greatly injured by retting, but is extracted without harm by 
scotching machines. The yield of fiber is about i ton per acre. 
Cajun, known also as silk grass, gives a fiber of superior qual- 
ity, the leaves containing about 2 per cent, of fiber by weight. 
The cultivation of Mauritius hemp and cajun is waning. 
Zapupe {Agave sapupe and other species) recently came into 
some prominence in Mexico. This plant produces leaves ready 
for harvesting at the age of 2 years. The crop persists longer 
than sisal, but the commercial status of the fiber is yet to be 
determined. 

The sisal leaves contain about 3-5 per cent, of fiber by weight 
and the commercial fiber varies in length from 3 to 5 feet. This 
fiber is second only to Manila hemp in strength. It is used 
chiefly for cordage. The binder twine industry requires a 
large amount of sisal, and sisal fiber is extensively used in mak- 
ing so-called Manila rope. In the cordage industry as in vari- 



FIBER PLANTS 173 

ous other manufacturing processes a great amount of substi- 
tution and mixing is practiced. Since sisal can usually be 
purchased at a considerably lower price than that of Manila 
hemp the sisal fiber is used in cordage as a substitute for Man- 
ila hemp. 

As already indicated, the commercial production of sisal is 
carried on chiefly in Mexico, the Bahamas, and East Africa. 
The United States occupies a very unimportant position in the 
production of this material. In Hawaii there are about i,6oo 
acres devoted to sisal and an annual product of 400 tons of 
fiber. The United States imports annually, however, 215,000 
tons of sisal, 98 per cent, of which is obtained in Mexico. The 
quality of the Hawaiian product is excellent. The Hawaiian 
sisal is true sisal and is superior in value to the henequen fiber 
imported under the name of sisal from Mexico. In Hawaii 
also an improvement has been introduced in the way of modify- 
ing the decorticating machines for sisal. One of these ma- 
chines will separate 1,000 pounds of sisal per day. Sisal also 
thrives well on the Florida Keys, but has never been produced 
there in commercial quantities. 

MANILA HEMP 

Manila hemp, or abaca, as it is called in the Philippines, is 
a tall species of banana with small useless fruit full of black 
seed and with a fiber of unusual excellence in the trunk. The 
botanical name of abaca is Musa textilis. The leaves of this 
plant are more decidedly tufted at the apex of the trunk than 
in the case of edible bananas. Abaca is indigenous to the 
Philippines. 

The value of the fiber was demonstrated in 1656 by a Fran- 
ciscan monk who devised a simple instrument which is still 
used by the natives for decortication. Notwithstanding numer- 
ous attempts in various tropical countries, the Philippines still 
enjoy a monopoly in the production of Manila hemp. The rea- 



174 TllOPICAL AGRICULTURE 

son for the failure of Manila hemp in various other tropical 
countries to which it has been introduced is not apparent. A 
number of suckers supposed to be those of Manila hemp were 
imported by the Hawaii Experiment Station, but when these 
plants came to maturity they proved to be only a wild species 
of banana with small fruits full of seed and with a poor fiber 
weaker even than the fiber of the Chinese banana. 

Manila hemp is propagated chiefly by suckers in the same 
manner as bananas and rarely by seed. The planting distance 
varies from 6 to lo feet apart both ways. The trunk is cut 
down at the age of 3 or 4 years just as the plant is about to 
flower. It has been found that the fiber is practically ruined 
by allowing the plant to fruit. Such cultivation and weeding 
as the crop may receive during its growth are largely done by 
hand. For the purpose of decortication the trunk is cut into 
longitudinal strips and the strips are then pulled across the edge 
of a knife either notched like a saw or with smooth edge. The 
strip of the trunk is pressed against the knife edge by means of 
a lever operated by a second workman. A pair of laborers 
working in this manner will take out about 30 to 35 pounds of 
fiber per day. When first removed the fiber contains about 55 
per cent, of moisture. After being thoroughly dried the fiber 
is packed in bales of about 125 pounds. 

The reported yields of Manila hemp fiber range from 500 to 
6,000 pounds per acre. The average yield is perhaps 750 
pounds. The experience in the Philippines has shown that a 
plantation can be operated profitably for about 15 years before 
replanting becomes necessary. Manila hemp possesses a long 
fiber, often 6 feet in length. The lighter the color and the 
greater the luster of the fiber the higher the value. Abaca 
belongs with hard fibers and is used chiefly for cordage, par- 
ticularly marine cables. It is extremely light and a given 
weight produces a greater length of cable than can be obtained 
from the same weight of most other fibers. Abaca also strongly 
resists the action of water, especially salt water. The fiber 



FIBER PLANTS 175 

from the outer portion of the trunk is shortest, darkest in color, 
and of least value. It is used mostly in cheap bagging. Fibers 
from the intermediate portion of the stem are exported for 
cordage, while the inner part of the stem furnishes a fiber used 
in fine fabrics and gauzes. For many years the quality of the 
fiber exported from Manila was allowed to deteriorate as a 
result of improper sorting, cutting the trunks at the wrong 
stage of growth, the use of a saw tooth edge in place of a 
smooth knife, and packing the fiber before it was dry. Many 
complaints were received from manufacturers and attention 
was again directed to proper methods in preparing this valuable 
product. 

About 10 per cent, of the total quantity of Manila hemp ex- 
ported is best grade, i8 per cent, good current, 40 per cent 
current, and 32 per cent. low. The total export of Manila 
hemp is about 175,000 tons. This appears to satisfy the world's 
demand. At any rate the market demand is apparently not 
larger than the supply and varies from year to year with the 
available supply of other fibers. 

BANANA FIBER 

Attempts have been made in many localities throughout the 
Tropics to extract a serviceable fiber from various species of 
edible and wild bananas. The fiber of Musa basjoo is of fair 
strength, good length and luster, and is used in Japan to some 
extent in the manufacture of bashofu cloth and as a substitute 
for wall paper. Many experiments have also been carried on 
with the fiber of M. sapientum and M. cavendishii and other 
species of bananas. Banana trunks yield about 2 per cent, of 
fiber which is light colored, but weak and ununiform. The na- 
tives of the West Indies have used banana fiber for making 
cheap bags and even garments. Companies have been organ- 
ized with announcements of good prospects from the extrac- 
tion of banana fiber, but this fiber is of doubtful commercial 



176 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

value and has never been produced in commercial quantities. 
If it could be obtained economically in large quantities it might 
be used as a cheap substitute for abaca, or sisal. The experi- 
ment in extracting the fiber of the Chinese banana in Hawaii 
indicated that this banana yielded about 2 per cent, of a fiber 
which gave promise of being a good material for use in paper 
manufacture. It is doubtful, however, whether it could be 
economically extracted for such purposes. 



RAMIE 

Ramie is a well known and much desired fiber of great merit, 
but suffers from the disadvantages occasioned by difficulties in 
extracting and cleaning the fiber. The botanical name of ramie 
is Baehmeria nivea. It is produced chiefly in China, Formosa, 
Korea, Assam, Bengal, Mexico, and Caucasus. The United 
States imports about 4,000 tons of ramie fiber annually. The 
ramie plant looks like a nettle and attains a height of 6 to 12 
feet. The fiber is long, exceedingly strong, and is least injured 
by water of all known fibers except perhaps olona. 

Ramie is best propagated by root division. The plant yields 
two crops annually and 1,000 pounds is considered a good 
annual yield of fiber. The green stalks yield about 10 per cent, 
by weight of degummed fiber. Ramie is extracted by hand 
stripping, boiling in water, and special machinery devised for 
the purpose. The gums are then removed from the fiber by 
treatment with caustic alkalis or dilute acids. Ramie fiber is 
used in innumerable kinds of cloth, fabrics, cordage, thread, 
paper, etc. The wholesale price of the fiber is 12 cents or more 
per pound. The crop offers little difficulty from an agricultural 
standpoint, but the great difficulties encountered in decortica- 
tion limit the large extension of the industry. Ramie has been 
grown experimentally in the Southern States and California. 
It thrives well in those States, but has not given promise of 
becoming a commercial industry there. 



FIBER PLANTS 177 

KAPOK 

Kapok is the most important source of silk-cotton, or floss. 
The botanical name of the tree is Eriodendron anfractuosum. 
The tree is indigenous to the West Indies, Asia, and Africa. 
It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet, possesses a smooth bark, 
and horizontal whorled branches. In some countries, as for 
example in Cuba, the kapok tree assumes irregular and weird 
habits of growth. For the most part, however, it is a graceful 
and rather handsome tree. The leaves fall during the dry- 
season. 

The tree begins bearing at about 3 years of age. It is com- 
monly estimated that 100 pods will produce i pound of floss 
and that about 10 pounds of floss may be obtained annually 
from each mature tree. The floss is used in pillows, mattresses, 
and recently in life belts. It has been found of unusual merit 
in the construction of life preservers by reason of its im- 
permeability to water. The tree is propagated from cuttings or 
from seed and is planted about 20 feet apart both ways. Kapok 
plantations are often interplanted with coffee for shade. The 
pods are picked before opening and just after they turn brown. 
They are then dried in the sun and the seed is beaten out by 
bamboo brush or other hand methods. A satisfactory ginning 
machine for kapok is a desideratum. A few machines which 
are said to have given good results are now in use in the 
Philippines. 

Floss is replacing cork for buoyant cushions and is preferred 
to all other fibers in upholstery on account of its great elas- 
ticity. The fiber is short, silky, and possessed of little drag or 
the quality of adhering together, which is so necessary for 
spinning purposes. The elasticity of the fiber, however, is very 
great and for this reason mattresses and pillows made of kapok 
fiber do not readily become matted. 

Java produces 10,000 tons of floss annually, Ceylon 300 
tons, and the Philippines 100 tons. The demand for kapok is 



178 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

increasing. In India, Bomhax malaharicum, a plant closely 
related to kapok, and like kapok producing large pods with 
black seed covered with a silky lint, is used as a substitute for 
kapok. The bombax fiber, however, is a reddish-brown, while 
the kapok is ivory white. 

Kapok is often called silk-cotton, but this is a rather mis- 
leading term. The kapok pods are 3 to 5 inches long, spindle- 
shaped, and 2 inches in diameter at the center. Unlike true 
cotton the valves of the pod do not open on the tree to 
allow the picking of the lint, but the pods must be picked 
whole before the valves open, otherwise the lint would be 
blown away and lost. The pod is tightly packed with a soft 
and silky white lint very loosely attached to the small black 
seed. 



MILKWEEDS 

Several species of Asclepiadacese, as well as Beaumontia, 
Strophanthus, and certain other Apocynacese bear a soft fiber 
on the seed which has been used under the general term vege- 
table silk. Calotropis gigantea, native of China, India, and 
Africa, possesses a bast fiber which splits into fine silky threads 
which have been used for fabrics and also for cordage. Thus 
far this fiber has been removed entirely by hand. The yield 
obtained from wild areas of the tree is about 500 pounds per 
acre. The fiber has a high degree of resistance to moisture. 
The tree also yields a latex from which a low grade of rubber 
has been produced. 

Asclepias curassavica, native of Central America and South 
America and now generally distributed throughout the Tropics, 
has sometimes been used locally as a source of fiber. Cryptos- 
tegia grandiMora yields a fine, strong fiber from bast which is 
sometimes used for cordage and yarn. This plant is a hand- 
some woody climber which attains a great length, climbing 
from the branches and crowns of trees and bears large, pretty, 



FIBER PLANTS 179 

rose-colored or pinkish flowers. The plant also yields a high- 
grade rubber. 

NEW ZEALAND FLAX 

New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) has been widely dis- 
tributed from its home in New Zealand throughout the Tropics 
and even into temperate climates. The plant is propagated by 
root division or by seed at distances of 3 by 3 feet to 6 by 6 
feet. The leaves of the New Zealand flax are sword-like, 5 to 
6 feet in length and contain 15 to 20 per cent, fiber. At about 
3 years of age the plant sends up a flower stalk after which, 
as in the case of sisal and henequen, the remaining leaves are 
no longer useful for fiber purposes. New Zealand flax yields 
about 1,200 pounds of fine fiber and 800 pounds of tow per 
acre. The fiber is white and of silky luster and finer than hemp 
or linen. The native Maoris remove the fiber by hand, but 
decorticating machinery is used on large plantations to cheapen 
the product. New Zealand flax fiber is used for cordage, twine, 
and matting. The export from New Zealand amounts to 25,000 
tons annually. The United States imports 6,000 tons of New 
Zealand flax per year. The plant thrives well in California as 
far north as San Francisco and the leaves are used to some ex- 
tent by farmers as tying material, but the plant has never as- 
sumed commercial importance in the United States. 

BOWSTRING HEMP 

Bowstring hemp belongs to the lily family, of which several 
species of the genus Sansevieria have come to be known by 
this name. The dififerent species of bowstring hemp are com- 
monly found in Guinea, Ceylon, Bengal, Java, Southern China, 
and generally throughout the Tropics. There are about 30 well 
known species of bowstring hemp. They are herbaceous, stem- 
less plants with sword-like root leaves, blotched with gray, 2 
to 7 feet long or more. The leaves yield a fine white strong 



180 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

fiber used in mats, hammocks, bowstrings, twine, and for vari- 
ous other purposes. The plants are easily propagated by seed, 
root division, or suckers. They require little care or cultiva- 
tion, spread readily by root suckers, and grow wild over large 
areas. Plantings rarely have to be renewed. Bowstring hemp 
yields its first crop at about 3 years of age. As a rule, 50 
pounds of fiber may be expected per ton of leaves. The fiber 
may be removed by hand machines, or by a sisal decorticator. 
For this purpose the sisal machine merely requires special ad- 
justment. In Porto Rico the bowstring hemp is quite an im- 
portant plant for local uses. A species of bowstring hemp {S. 
longiUora), quite widely distributed in tropical America, is 
grown in Florida, especially on the Keys. This species pro- 
duces fiber ranging from 2^2 to 7 feet in length and yields 
about 40 pounds of fiber to a ton of leaves. It was introduced 
into Florida about 1890, but has never become a commercial 
crop. 

HIBISCUS FIBERS 

Nearly all species of Hibiscus, both ornamental and commer- 
cial, as well as most species of the whole mallow family, pro- 
duce a strong and serviceable bast fiber in the bark. Only a 
few species of Hibiscus, however, have been used for the com- 
mercial production of fiber. The musk mallow {H. abihnos- 
chus) has been the subject of experiment in India with refer- 
ence to the value of its fiber. In these experiments 800 pounds 
of fiber per acre were obtained. The fiber was found to have 
no advantage over jute. The Deccan hemp (H. cannabinus) , 
a native of the East Indies, is perhaps the most valuable mem- 
ber of the genus as a fiber plant. The length of the fiber of 
Deccan hemp is 5 to 10 feet. The fiber is inferior to true hemp 
and jute, but is used in India for various agricultural purposes. 
The stems of the plant are cut, bundled, and retted in water for 
about a week. The cultivation of the Deccan hemp is much like 
that of true hemp. The time from seed to harvest is about 3 



FIBER PLANTS 181 

months and the yield of fiber averages 2 tons per acre. 

The Cuba bast {H. elatus) is a tree native to the West Indies 
and attaining a height of 50 feet. In order to obtain fiber the 
tree is cut and the bark is then peeled off. From the bark a 
coarse bast fiber is obtained suitable for cordage and cheap 
bags. This fiber is also called Mountain Mahoe. Occasional 
mention in literature on fiber plants of H. arboreus perhaps re- 
fers to this species. Okra (H. esculentus) produces a long 
Vi^hite smooth fiber which is not very strong. In India this fiber 
is used for rope, sacking, and paper. The yield is usually not 
greater than 180 pounds per acre. A company was once organ- 
ized in Texas to extract okra fiber, but the attempt was later 
abandoned as impractical. 

Roselle (H. sabdariffa), a native of the West Indies, was 
long cultivated in India for fiber without making use of the 
fruit of this plant. The fiber is obtained by retting the stems 
in water for 15 to 20 days. The yield is about 600 pounds per 
acre of dry fiber. Roselle fiber is quite extensively used for 
cordage and paper. Fiber is light brown in color and some- 
what stronger than jute. Majagua (H. tillaceus) occurs widely 
in Central America, South America, India, and the Pacific 
Islands. Among the Polynesians this straggling bush is called 
hau. The fiber obtained from the bast of the bark is used for 
rope in Trinidad and Peru. It is weaker than jute and, as ordi- 
narily obtained, ranges in length from 4 to 6 feet. 

Various other species of Hibiscus, as well as the related 
tree Thespesia populnea, called milo by the Polynesians, have 
been used as sources of fiber. Tronadora {Abutilon incanum), 
a native of Mexico, is a low shrub which attains a height of 8 
feet. The stems are retted in water 3 to 4 days and stripped 
by hand. From the bast a very durable fiber is obtained, useful 
in manufacturing hammocks, ropes, and nets. A. indicum oc- 
curs quite commonly in India, Burma, Mauritius, and South 
Africa. The bast, which is obtained in the same manner as 
were the last named species, is used for cordage. A. periploci- 



182 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

folium, a species native to tropical America, attains a height of 
12 feet. Under cultivation this species yields nearly a ton of 
yellowish bast per acre. The bark is retted for 5 to 8 days and 
the fiber thus obtained is used for ropes. 



PIASSAVA FIBER 

From a number of palms a fiber known as piassava fiber 
is obtained from the margins of the leaves or leaf petioles. 
Leopoldinia piassaba of the Orinoco and Amazon regions pro- 
duces on the margins of the leaf petioles long strips which 
split into fibers 4 to 6 feet long. This fiber is used for brooms 
and brushes and by the natives for ropes, baskets, hats, and 
other utensils. Attalia funifera of Brazil, known as the Bahia 
piassava, yields stiff, wiry, brown fiber from the fringe of the 
leaf petioles. This fiber is used for brushes and coarse cables. 
The trees begin to bear at 6 to 9 years of age. In practice it is 
found that one man can harvest about 100 pounds per day. The 
annual export from Brazil is approximately 7,000 tons. 

The Palmyra palm (Borassus Uahellifer) of India, Africa, 
and other tropical countries produces a fiber from the leaf 
sheaths resembling piassava. This fiber is used for machine 
brushes, ropes, twine, and fish traps. The export of Palmyra 
palm from Ceylon and Madras is gradually increasing. The 
wine palm (Caryota urens), common in India, Pacific Islands, 
and various other parts of the Tropics, yields a fiber from the 
leaf petiole which is quite widely used for brushes. 

SUNN HEMP 

The sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea) is a leguminous plant 
native of Asia, and widely cultivated in India, Ceylon, Java, 
and Borneo for its fiber. The fiber is used for coarse canvas, 
cordage, and fish nets. Sunn hemp seed are sown broadcast 
and the yield of fiber per acre is 650 pounds. The stems are 



FIBER PLANTS 183 

cut, dried, and then retted for 4 or 5 days in water. Sunn 
hemp is also a valuable cover crop and is extensively grown as 
a green manure plant. The quantity of foliage and vegetable 
material produced per acre, however, is less than with several 
other species of Crotalaria. About 500,000 acres of sunn hemp 
are grown from fiber in Madras, where the fiber is produced 
as a substitute for jute. The fiber is really better than jute 
and of a lighter color. 

PINEAPPLE FIBER 

Pineapple fiber is produced chiefly in the Philippine Islands, 
Formosa, and Java. In the Philippines this fiber is used in 
the manufacture of the well known pina cloth, while the fiber 
produced in Formosa is shipped to China, where it is made into 
grass cloth or grass linen. For fiber, pineapple plants are spaced 
4 by 4 feet. The yield is about 500 pounds of fiber per acre. 
Ordinarily the leaves contain 3 or 4 per cent, by weight of 
fiber. In the Philippines and Formosa the fiber is removed 
from the leaves by hand. In order to obtain the best quality of 
fiber it is necessary to harvest leaves at their maximum stage 
of growth and before they begin to wither at the tip. The 
Hawaii Experiment Station made a study of the possibility of 
utilizing pineapple leaves from commercial pineapple planta- 
tions in the production of fiber. In Hawaii, three crops of 
pineapples are taken before the fields are replanted. Most of 
the leaves of the old plants have therefore begun to wither at 
the tips before the three crops of fruit are harvested. A ton of 
these leaves was collected and put through an ordinary sisal 
decorticator. An excellent quality of fiber was obtained with- 
out difficulty. It was found that the leaves yielded about 3 per 
cent, by weight of commercial fiber. Considerable loss of fiber 
occurred for the reason that the sisal decorticating machine 
was not quite properly adjusted for pineapple leaves. Fiber 
obtained from old pineapple leaves under such circumstances 



184. TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

could not be used for pina cloth, but it has good strength and 
seemed to be a fair substitute for sisal. 

Caraguata (Bromelia argentina), a native of Paraguay and 
Argentina, yields a soft, silky fiber from the leaves 4 to 6 feet 
long and much resembling pineapple fiber. It is much used by 
the natives for making cordage and sacks. B. pinguin of West 
Indies, Central America, and South America, also called wild 
pineapple, yields a leaf fiber which is, however, not of much 
commercial value, B. sylvestris, native of the West Indies and 
Central America, has been called silk grass and "Bromelia 
istle." The fiber from the leaves of this plant is strong and 
silky and is much used by the natives for cordage and various 
other purposes. 

OLONA 

Olona (Touchardia latifoUa) is a native Hawaiian shrub at- 
taining a height of 3 to 10 feet. The shrub belongs to the net- 
tle family, the flowers somewhat resembling those of the 
nettle. The olona occurs generally in deep ravines on all the 
Hawaiian islands, but is not particularly common anywhere. 
The fiber is highly prized by the natives for use in making 
fish nets and fish lines. It is extremely strong, flexible, and 
of great durability. Fish lines known to be 100 years old are 
still in prime condition. It shows a most unusual resistance 
to the influence of either fresh or salt water. The fiber is taken 
from wild plants by hand methods, the pulp of the bark being 
separated from the fiber. The plant has never been cultivated 
and the fiber is therefore not of commercial importance. 

DEVIL'S COTTON 

This tree, known to botanists as Ahroma augusta, is native 
of India, China, Java, and the Philippines. It is a small tree 
cultivated to some extent in India. It yields a strong bast 
fiber which is white and of great strength. The fiber is fine 



FIBER PLANTS 185 

and silky and is extensively used for cordage. It has even 
been recommended as a substitute for silk. The fibers are 
readily separated by maceration in water for 4 to 8 days. The 
staple of Devil's cotton is 4 to 6 feet long. The fiber is ob- 
tained from the outer dry fibrous bark of the tree, and it has 
been found that this bark develops so rapidly that it may be 
removed 2 or 3 times a year. 



RAFFIA 

Raffia is a well known palm 50 to 70 feet high, known to 
botanists as Raphia ruffia, and is native of Africa. The raf- 
fia palm bears pinnate leaves 25 to 50 feet long. The com- 
mercial fiber comes from both surfaces of the leaves. The 
epidermis and the underlying hard tissue of the leaf is easily 
stripped from the leaves in bands 3 or 4 feet long. The rafiia 
is used in Madagascar for hats, mats, and plaited goods. In 
the United States the raffia is used principally by gardeners 
and nurserymen as a binding or tying material in grafting 
operations. It is also used in this country in wall coverings, 
fine grades of matting, and for basket weaving. The palm 
reaches maturity of its leaves at the age of 15 years and con- 
tinues to yield crops of leaves for about 40 years, after which 
it begins to fruit. As is the case with a number of other 
palms the tree is of little commercial value after fruiting be- 
gins. The export of raffia from Madagascar is about 5,000 
tons annually. R. vinifera is a West African palm, which 
is used for similar purposes. There are said to be about 
5,000 square miles of this species near Lagos. Ultimately this 
area will doubtless become of great commercial value. 



ESPARTO GRASS 

This is a tufted grass which occurs abundantly in Tripoli 
and northeastern Africa generally. It is also cultivated along 



186 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the northern shore of the Mediterranean, particularly in Spain. 
The grass is known to botanists as Stipa tenacissima. It re- 
quires about 3 years for the tussocks of this grass to reach a 
harvesting stage and the fibers obtained from the stems of 
the grass felt readily and yield an excellent stock for paper 
making, especially suitable for mixing with rags, straw, or 
wood pulp. The total production of this fiber is about 200,000 
tons annually. The fiber is i to 2 feet long, fine, uniform, and 
strong. It has also been used in cordage, sandals, baskets, 
and various other utensils. Esparto grass has been grown in 
the Southern States, but has thus far given no commercial 
promise in these States. 

PAPYRUS 

Several species of sedge furnish valuable paper and mat- 
making material. The true papyrus of ancient times (Cyperus 
papyrus) was formerly cultivated by the Egyptians along the 
Nile. It is now found in Abyssinia, Palestine, and Sicily. The 
stems of the papyrus sedge are used in Egypt for making boats, 
mats, and baskets, but chiefly in the production of a writing 
paper which is manufactured from the inner bark of the stems. 
In preparing this material the stems are slit lengthwise, after 
which the stems are moistened and pressed together. As is 
generally well known, rolls of papyrus were interred with 
mummies. 

The Chinese mat rush (C. tegetiformis) also sometimes 
called seaside grass, is a tall sedge with stems reaching a height 
of 3 to 6 feet, widely used in the manufacture of mats and hats. 
This sedge was formerly imported into the United States in 
bales for use in the manufacture of floor mattings. The leaves 
require splitting lengthwise into halves, and while many 
attempts have been made to devise machinery which would 
satisfactorily accomplish this operation little success has been 
had. The leaves are therefore split by hand. This work 
proved to be too expensive for American manufacturers and 



FIBER PLANTS 187 

the enterprise was abandoned. A large percentage of the 
woven vegetable fiber mats used in the United States are made 
from this plant. 

In experiments at the Hawaii Experiment Station it was 
found that the crop required 6 to 7 months from planting to 
harvest. After one cutting a rattoon crop developed within 
5 months. The second crop, however, was shorter than the 
first crop. The yield in these experiments was about 5 tons 
per acre and the stems varied in length from 36 to 60 inches. 
Experiments with the Chinese mat rush in the Southern States 
showed that this crop would thrive well in the brackish marshes 
along the coast but, as already explained, the expense of 
manipulating the material by hand has discouraged the estab- 
lishment of the matting industry in this country. C. tegetum, 
a closely related species, is used in the manufacture of floor 
matting in Calcutta and C. unitans furnishes material for use 
in coarse, cheap matting in Japan. 

Bingo-i mat rush (J uncus effusus) is a rush extensively 
grown in Japan. It attains a height of 4 or 5 feet and, like 
the Chinese matting sedge, thrives in water along the coast, 
enduring even the brackish water. The rush is shorter than 
the Chinese mat plant ; the stems are cut by hand when mature, 
and quickly dried. The bingo-i mat rush is not split for manu- 
facturing purposes. In Japan it is used for making the most 
expensive floor mats of that country. The plant has been 
found to thrive in Hawaii and various other countries into 
which it has been introduced but no commercial industry in 
connection with it has been developed outside of Japan. 

PLANTS USED FOR PAPER, HATS, UTENSILS, AND OTHER 
PURPOSES 

A large number of plants in tropical countries have been 
found useful as a source of material for tying, for weaving 
baskets and various household utensils, and for the manu- 
facture of hats and coarse garments. Most of these plants 



188 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

are not cultivated and the material is therefore taken from the 
wild plants. Few of the plants have ever become familiar to 
the inhabitants of northern climates. 

Mitsumata (Edgeworthm papyrifera) is one of the three 
most important plants used in the paper industries of Japan. 
It is a small bush propagated by seed or cuttings and is cul- 
tivated on a large scale in Japan. The material comes upon 
the market in the form of raw stripped bast either bleached 
or unbleached. The strips range in length from 6 to 8 feet 
and are whitish or yellow in color. The yield of bast is about 
6oo pounds per acre. The crop comes into bearing on the 
second year and yields are obtained on alternate years there- 
after. In manufacturing paper the material is treated some- 
what in the same manner as tapa. 

Rice paper plant (Fatsia papyrifera) is native of Formosa, 
where it grows extensively in the swampy forest of that island. 
When fully grown it is a small tree branching quite freely at 
the top. The stems are filled with pith of a fine texture, pure 
white, and this material is extensively used in making Chinese 
rice paper. 

Ganpi {Wikstroemia canescens) is native of Japan, but re- 
lated species occur in various parts of the Tropics. Ganpi is 
a shrub which is much cultivated for paper stock in Japan. 
The shrub comes to bearing age at 3 to 7 years. The yield of 
raw bark per acre annually is about 1,000 pounds. The large 
proportion of the ganpi which comes into trade is obtained 
from wild trees. W. viridiHora, a native of Hawaii, yields a 
bast used by the Hawaiians for rope and twine. 

Rice straw is extensively used in Japan for making paper. 
The annual produce of rice straw in Japan is about 15,000,000 
tons. This material is not only used in making paper, but also 
to a large extent in plait work for making bags, ropes, mats, 
raincoats, sandals, hats, thatching, and for many purposes 
which appear possible only by the help of the ingenuity and 
patience of the Oriental. The Chinese and Japanese banana 



FIBER PLANTS 189 

growers of Hawaii at one time devised a method for success- 
fully wrapping banana bunches with wisps of rice straw. 

Baobab (Adansonia digitata) is one of the giants among 
the trees. It belongs to the mallow family and is native of 
Africa. The trunk of the tree attains a huge size. The inner 
bark is stripped off into sheets and the bast obtained from 
this bark has been found to be suitable for paper, cheap cord- 
age, and sacking. The tree is cultivated to some extent in 
Madagascar and Reunion but thus far has attained no com- 
mercial importance. 

Tapa (Broiissonetia papyrifera), or paper mulberry, is a 
native of Polynesia, China, Japan, Siam, etc. Tapa is a small 
bush which is widely distributed throughout the Hawaiian 
Islands, as well as the other parts of the Polynesian group. 
The bast obtained from the bark of this shrub is easily pulped 
and is used for making paper in Japan, for the manufacture 
of papier-mache articles in Burma, and for tapa cloth in 
Hawaii, Fiji, and Samoa. The bark is peeled off in strips, 
after which the outer coat is scraped off with shells. The 
strips are laid on a smooth log and beaten with a hardwood 
mallet. The strips are then united by overlapping the edges 
and beating them together. Tapa cloth varies in weight from 
a muslin-like fabric to a material resembling leather. It was 
used by the ancient Hawaiians for pa-u or riding garments, 
for making the malo or girdle, mantles, blankets, burial cloths, 
and for numerous ornamental purposes. The tapa fabrics 
were colored usually yellow, red, and black in curious figures. 
The finest grades of tapa are of extreme value. The manu- 
facture of tapa, however, is a lost art in Hawaii. The ma- 
terial is no longer made by the natives, although tapa is 
still made by the natives of Samoa. The mamake (Pipturus 
gaudichaudianus) has also been much used in Hawaii in 
making tapa cloth. 

Screw pine (Pandanus utilis) and other species of Pan- 
danus occur widely throughout the Tropics. They are palm- 



190 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

like trees lo to 40 feet high, with aerial straddling roots at the 
base of the trunk and tufted leaves usually with spiny edges. 
The leaves are cut, allowed to dry, and slit into strips, after 
which they are used for thatching and for the manufacture 
of baskets, mats, cordage, etc. P. odoratissimus is widely used 
in Hawaii for weaving the so-called lauhala mats. This is 
one of the best materials for floor matting in Hawaii. The 
leaves are either split in halves so as to remove the midrib 
or are slit into narrower strips. If split in halves, the strips 
are about one inch wide. These strips make a coarser mat- 
ting which is not so expensive as matting made from ^-inch 
strips. The lauhala mats in the moist climate of the Tropics 
are almost indestructible. When brought to dry climates 
they require moistening occasionally to prevent them from 
becoming brittle. 

The nipa palm {Nipa fruticans), a native of India, Andaman 
Islands, etc., and generally distributed throughout the Tropics, 
bears leaves which are much prized as material for making 
hats, mattings, and various utensils. The nipa leaves are 
probably the most durable of all palm leaves for thatching 
purposes. 

Bear grass (Yucca Mamentosa) and various other species 
of Yucca have been used in the southwestern portion of the 
United States and in several tropical countries as a source 
of fiber suitable for coarse wrapping, sacking, fabrics and 
cordage. Bear grass can hardly be said to be cultivated for 
that purpose. For the most parts wild plants are used. The 
leaves are cut from the plants on the arid plains where they 
grow and are baled and shipped to cordage factories. 

Several species of palmetto palms furnish material which 
is used for fiber for brushes and other purposes. ChamcBrops 
humilis of Algeria and other Mediterranean countries bears 
leaves which when shredded yield a vegetable hair or African 
fiber useful as a substitute for curled hair. The tree attains 
a height of 20 to 30 feet but is often dwarf. The leaves 



FIBER PLANTS 191 

have a spread of 3 feet or more. The leaves of various other 
species of Chamserops as well as Spanish moss are used for 
similar purposes. The sabal palmetto, or cabbage palmetto 
of Florida, develops fibrous spathes upon the leaf sheaths 
around the "cabbage." This material is prepared by crushing 
and combing for use in manufacturing brushes, hats, and for 
other purposes. The saw palmetto, a dwarf trunkless palm 
of Florida and Georgia, yields a fiber from the leaf stems 
which is used to some extent as a substitute for cow hair in 
mortar. 

The Panama hat plant {Carludovica palmata), a native of 
Central America and South America and cultivated in Ecuador, 
Colombia, Peru, and other countries, bears plaited, fan-Hke 
leaves 4 feet across and incised into 4 or 5 divisions. The 
young leaves are cut at the time of unfolding, after which 
they are torn into ^-inch strips and later into narrower strips 
or straws, bleached by sulphuring, and dried in the sun. This 
material brings 50 to 60 cents a pound at the point of produc- 
tion. The plants mature at about 3 years of age. C. jamai- 
censis is used in a similar way in making jippa-jappa hats. 

The lace bark tree (Lagetta lintearia) of Jamaica attains a 
height of 25 to 30 feet. The inner bark is readily separated 
into sheets which when stretched form a pentagonal mesh 
structure like lace and much used for ornamental purposes. 
The bark of this tree resembles that of the paper birch. It 
is of a yellowish-white color and in addition to ornamental 
uses has been found valuable for paper cordage and even 
in the manufacture of cloth. 

Pulu is a lustrous, golden-brown fiber which develops at 
the base of the leaf stalks of the large tree ferns which occur 
so abundantly in the mountains of Hawaii and other Pacific 
Islands. This material has been much used for stuffing pil- 
lows and in surgery in stanching the flow of blood. Each 
plant yields 2 or 3 ounces of fiber. In the eighties of the 
last century, Hawaii exported about 200,000 pounds of pulu 



192 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

annually. At present there is no industry in connection 
with this material. The pulu fiber was obtained chiefly from 
Cibotium mensiesii, C. cJiamissoi, and C. glaucum. 

Rattan is the name applied to climbing palms of numerous 
species belonging to the genus Calamus, especially C. rotang. 
These palms attain great length up to 300 to 400 feet, espe- 
cially in India and China. The slender canes are used by 
the natives in making ladders, foot bridges, utensils, hats, and 
for other purposes. In Europe and the United States, rattan, 
however, is chiefly used for furniture, baskets, umbrellas, 
walking sticks, as a substitute for whalebone, and in numerous 
other ways. 

Bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) of India, East Indies, 
China, Algeria, and generally distributed throughout the Trop- 
ics is a slender tree 60 to 80 feet high, propagated by shoots 
and stem cuttings. There are thousands of acres covered with 
this species in a wild condition and it is also widely cultivated. 
Bamboo shoots i or 2 years old are much used as paper stock. 
For this purpose the stems are split and macerated in water 
7 to 10 days. This material forms the chief paper stock in 
China. Bamboo is also used in China, Japan, Java, Sumatra, 
and elsewhere for every conceivable purpose — for sails, 
houses, furniture, mats, screens, utensils of all kinds, and 
even coarse underclothing and pipes. Various other species 
of bamboo are also useful but are of less commercial im- 
portance than the species just mentioned. 

Sponge cucumber (Luff a CBgyptiaca), a climbing cucurbit 
vine widely distributed in the Tropics, is used in India as a 
vegetable. When, however, the pulp is retted away in water, 
a fibrous interlacing network is left, suitable for use as a 
sponge and commonly called vegetable sponge. The plant is 
cultivated for this purpose, chiefly in Japan, whence 1,000,000 
vegetable sponges were formerly exported annually. The 
industry is of much less importance at present 



CHAPTER XIII 

RUBBERS AND GUMS 

At the time of the discovery of America the natives of 
Central America and South America were found to be quite 
familiar with the properties of rubber and were using rubber 
for waterproofing garments and shoes and in making vessels 
and utensils of various kinds. A few years ago a mass of 
rubber was found in an olla, which was unburied in making 
some excavations in an old Indian village in Arizona. The 
conditions under which the rubber was found furnished quite 
conclusive evidence that the particular mass of rubber was 
not less than 300 years old. The mass of rubber had become 
oxidized and brittle to a depth of about Yz inch. The inner 
portion of the mass, however, retained apparently its full 
elasticity. A French explorer sent specimens of rubber from 
Ecuador to the French Academy of Sciences in 1736. Castil- 
loa rubber was described in 1798, Hevea rubber in 1865, and 
Ceara rubber in 1874. There are a few other important dates 
in the development of the rubber industry. Priestley sug- 
gested the use of rubber for erasers in 1770. The process of 
waterproofing fabrics was invented by Macintosh in 1820. The 
process of vulcanization of rubber was discovered by Good- 
year in 1839 and was later modified by Hancock in England. 
Previous to this discovery, rubber was of little commercial 
importance and was used only in small quantities for the few 
purposes to which it had been found to be adapted in its 
unmodified condition. 

Vulcanization consists essentially in heating rubber with 
sulphur. A combination takes place, whether of a physical 

193 



194 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

or chemical nature or both. The resulting product retains 
its elasticity much longer and through a much greater range 
of temperature than is true for pure rubber. Rubber may 
be vulcanized by heating a mixture of rubber and sulphur, 
or by dipping in melted sulphur, or by treating the rubber 
with sulphur monochlorid. In the simple process of heating 
a mixture of rubber and sulphur, the rubber is ordinarily 
mixed with 4 to 40 per cent, of sulphur and heated to a 
temperature of 125° to 150° C. 

Rubber is an elastic substance belonging to the hydrocarbon 
series and having the chemical formula (CioHi6)x. It is 
obtained by coagulating the latex of a number of plants which 
are native chiefly to Central and South America and Central 
Africa. The milky juice or latex of rubber-bearing plants 
is contained in the series of latex tubes and communicating 
structures which together constitute the latex system. The 
arrangement of the latex tubes is somewhat different in dif- 
ferent species of trees. In Kickxia they are distributed chiefly 
just under the epidermis, immediately outside of the cambium 
and in the outer part of the pith bordering on the woody 
tissue. There are numerous strands of the latex system 
connecting the latex tubes in the outer and inner portions of 
the bark. The main latex system in Hevea or the Para rubber 
tree is an inner belt located about halfway between the epi- 
dermis and the cambium and no latex tubes occur in the pith. 
In Ficus, the latex tubes are chiefly found in the bark near 
the cambium. In young trees, however, they occur throughout 
the pith. In the Castilloa, the main latex system is in the 
bark and a few strands of latex tubes are located in the pith 
immediately underneath the wood tissue. In Ceara rubber 
trees, the latex tubes are found almost exclusively in the bark 
outside of the cambium. In order to obtain a full yield of 
latex, therefore, it is unnecessary to injure the cambium. The 
large number of connecting tubes between the main longi- 
tudinal trunks of the latex system is conspicuous in Ceara 



RUBBERS AND GUMS 195 

rubber trees and partly accounts for the ready flow of latex 
from rubber trees made in tapping wounds in any direction. 

Latex is almost invariably white, resembling milk in appear- 
ance and consistency, and is essentially an emulsion containing 
minute globules of rubber, together with resins and proteids 
associated with the rubber in a watery solution. The globules 
of rubber vary greatly in size in different species of rubber 
trees. The specific gravity of latex is ordinarily a little lower 
than that of water. Latex contains from 48 to 75 per cent, 
of water, according to the species of the rubber tree, and a 
variable percentage of resin, proteid, and ash. These latter 
constituents are considered as impurities and as depreciating 
the value of the rubber product if they occur in too high 
percentages. The proportion of proteid, resin, and ash is 
considerably higher in young than in old mature trees. The 
percentage of these impurities also varies considerably accord- 
ing to the species of rubber tree. The lowest percentage of 
resin, proteid, and ash is found in the latex or rubber of mature 
Hevea trees. 

The physical constitution of latex being that of an emulsion, 
the coagulation of the latex may be brought about by any chem- 
ical or physical process which will disturb the equilibrium 
in the emulsion and favor the segregation of the solid constitu- 
ents of the latex. Coagulation of rubber latex has been accom- 
plished by various methods. The latex of most rubber trees 
will undergo a spontaneous coagulation within a fairly short 
time. The latex may also be diluted with water and the 
whole mixture allowed to stand for 24 hours or more. This 
method may be used with Ceara rubber as well as with Castil- 
loa rubber. After standing the rubber, being lighter than 
water, collects upon the water like cream, while the water 
remains below. Rubber may also be separated from the watery 
solution by centrifugal machines similar to the dairy separator. 
Various other chemical and physical means have been used 
in coagulating latex. The latex of Hevea and Landolphia may 



196 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

be readily coagulated by gentle heat. The same applies to the 
highly resinous latex of Euphorbia lorifolia of Hawaii. Among 
the chemicals which have been used in hastening the coagula- 
tion of latex we may mention acetic, citric, tannic, and formic 
acids, various salts of sodium and magnesium, alkaline hquids, 
and alcohol and acetone. The two last named reagents are 
used only in laboratory experiments, being too expensive for 
field practice. 

In tapping rubber trees for obtaining the latex, almost every 
conceivable manner of wounding the bark of trees has been 
tried. The tapping systems vary somewhat, according to the 
species of tree, and brief mention is made of perfected methods 
in connection with the discussion of the important kinds of 
rubber trees. If all of the kinds of tapping tools were brought 
together they would constitute a quite formidable arsenal of 
instruments, including hatchet-like structures, all possible 
shapes and sizes of knives, shaves, paring utensils, and revolv- 
ing wheel prickers. The cuts commonly made in the bark in 
a tapping operation also vary greatly in length and arrange- 
ment. The usual systems of tapping include long, longitudinal 
incisions into which short, oblique incisions may run, various 
lengths of V-shaped cuts, spiral and semi-spiral cuts about 
the trunk of the tree, the herringbone and half-herringbone 
system of tapping, horizontal incisions, simple shallow pricks 
with a revolving wheel like that in a riding spur, etc. 

For many years the rubber growers have been periodically 
worried with the bugaboo of artificial rubber. Synthetic rub- 
ber has been produced in many laboratories in England and 
in Continental Europe. At a recent rubber exposition in 
London an automobile was exhibited with tires made entirely 
of artificial rubber. It was reported, however, that these tires 
cost about $4,000. Many patents have been taken out covering 
processes for manufacturing artificial rubber in the United 
States, England, Russia, France, and Germany. Some of these 
processes are strictly secret, while others have been published 



RUBBERS AND GUMS 197 

quite widely. Recently the Russian Government has an- 
nounced a process for the manufacture of artificial rubber 
from vodka, and a similar process has been patented for 
making rubber out of alcohol in the United States. The possi- 
bility of producing artificial rubber on a real commercial basis 
cannot be denied in toto, but synthetic rubber is still in an 
experimental condition without commercial importance. As 
has been well said, synthetic rubber is heard much more than 
seen. 

Para rubber {Hevea hrasiliensis) is a native of the Amazon 
region and is now cultivated in Ceylon, Federated Malay 
States, and various other places in the Tropics. This tree is 
the source of the commercial Para rubber. In Ceylon and 
the Federated Malay States there are now about 680,000 acres 
of plantation Hevea from which the exportation of Para rub- 
ber in 1913 was 12,300 tons. The Hevea tree is usually planted 
at the rate of 100 to 150 per acre. It is customary to begin 
tapping the trees at 5 years of age and the annual yield at this 
age may be stated as about ^ pound per tree. At lo years 
of age the yield is 2 or 3 pounds, while at 15 years it reaches 
4 to 6 pounds per tree per year. The Hevea tree reaches a 
height of 100 feet when mature and a girth of 6 to 12 feet. 

The Ceylon light crepe rubber, obtained from plantation 
Hevea, was once the world's standard for rubber. At present, 
however, Upriver Para rubber from Brazil brings the highest 
price. The wild trees in Brazil are tapped daily or every other 
day or about 90 to 120 times during the dry season. The tap- 
pers use a small ax with i-inch blade and attach a cup below 
each incision. The latex is collected and taken to the huts 
of the laborers, where it is coagulated in the hot smoke of 
burning palm nuts into balls weighing 40 to 135 pounds. On 
Hevea plantations, tapping begins when the trees have a girth 
of 20 inches 3 feet from the ground. It has been found that 
the flow of latex is most profuse in early morning. The most 
widely used system of tapping is the half-herringbone method. 



198 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the trunk being divided into four vertical zones for this pur- 
pose. The phenomenon of ''wound response" is much utilized 
in tapping Hevea. This phrase refers to the fact that within 
certain limits the quickly healing surface of the cut in the 
bark of the Hevea will yield increasing amounts by tapping it 
for 3 to 5 days, after which a resting period is allowed. The 
full herringbone system, spiral, half-spiral, and V-shaped 
incisions have also been used in tapping Hevea. For use in 
these different methods of tapping more than 50 specially 
devised tapping instruments have been manufactured and 
patented. 

Para rubber contains about 95 per cent, caoutchouc, 1.5 
per cent, resin, 2.5 per cent, protein, 0.5 per cent, ash, and 
.5 per cent, moisture. 

Ceara or Manitoba rubber (Manihot glaziovii) is a native 
of Brazil. This tree bears a 3 to 9-parted, usually 5-parted, 
leaf like that of cassava, instead of the 3-parted leaf as in 
Hevea. The bark is thin and smooth, the outer layer of bark 
greatly resembling that of the cherry tree. The Ceara tree 
reaches a height of 50 feet or more and a diameter of 2 feet 
or greater. The trunk commonly forks into three or more 
main branches. In Brazil, the Ceara rubber tree is tapped 
during a period of 7 or 8 weeks in the dry season. The tap- 
ping wounds are made at the base of the trunk or on the 
upper surface of the roots and the latex is allowed to run out 
on the soil, after which it is collected and washed. Ceara 
trunks may be tapped by slits or punctures on V-shaped cuts 
after stripping the outer bark. In Hawaii, a comparison was 
made of a large number of methods of tapping Ceara rubber 
trees. The best and most economic results were obtained from 
stripping the outer bark in narrow vertical slits and making 
several oblique stabs in the exposed inner bark by means of 
a flat chisel-like knife producing an incision about an inch 
in length. Results almost as satisfactory were obtained by 
running a wheel pricker up and down the exposed strip of 



RUBBERS AND GUMS 199 

bark. In tapping young trees good results were obtained from 
the use of long V-shaped cuts leading nearly to the base of 
the tree. The flow of latex has been found to be most pro- 
fuse from the base of the trunk and decidedly less vigorous 
from the upper portion of the trunk. In Hawaii, the method 
adopted on Ceara plantations in preparing rubber consists 
merely in the use of the ordinary rubber mangier through 
which a continuous stream of water runs during the cleaning 
process. By this machine the latex is freed of dirt and much 
of the resin, proteid, and other impurities under the great 
pressure of the mangier and the dissolving influence of the 
water. The thick crepe-like sheets into which it is finally 
rolled are then dried in the vacuum drier. Ceara rubber con- 
tains about 91.5 per cent, caoutchouc, 1.5 per cent, ash, 0.5 
per cent, moisture, 3.5 per cent, resin, and 3 per cent, protein. 

Other species of Manihot are also being tested in various 
rubber-growing districts, but commercial experience with these 
species is too recent for reliable opinions The species which 
have received most attention are M. dichotoma, M. piauhyen- 
sis, and M. keptaphylla. 

The African rubber tree (Funtumia elastica) has been com- 
monly referred to as the source of Lagos silk rubber. The 
tree bears smooth oblong leaves 5 to 10 inches long and i to 4 
inches wide. The trunk is erect and tapering, covered with a 
mottled gray bark, and reaches a height of 100 feet at maturity. 
In Central Africa, from Sierra Leone to the East African 
Protectorate, the native methods of collecting Funtumia rubber 
were to cut down trees and then slit the bark or coagulate 
the latex in the bark by heat. The bark was then beaten into 
fragments from which the rubber was gradually collected into 
shreds or balls. Later the natives adopted the full herring- 
bone system of tapping and carried the tapping wounds up 
the trunk to a height of 50 feet with the help of ladders and 
slings. Funtumia latex is rather difficult to coagulate. It 
coagulates spontaneously only after standing about 6 weeks. 



200 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

The latex may be coagulated, however, by the gentle appli- 
cation of heat or by adding an infusion of the leaves of 
Bauhinia reticulata or of Strophanthus preussii. On planta- 
tions of Funtumia these methods and "creaming," or diluting 
the latex with 5 to 10 times its volume of water, are used. 
Chemical coagulations have also been tried. Spiral tapping 
and vertical cuts have given the best yield, but the yield of 
Funtumia rubber varies greatly and is apparently less than 
that of Hevea trees of the same size. Funtumia rubber con- 
tains 86.5 per cent, caoutchouc, 0.5 per cent, moisture, 6 per 
cent, resin, 6 per cent, protein, and i per cent. ash. 

The Central American rubber tree (Castilloa elastica) is a 
quick-growing tree with soft rather smooth bark and large 
hairy leaves, 12 to 20 inches long and 5 inches wide. The 
temporary deciduous branches, sometimes 10 feet long, form 
on the young trees and later fall off. Permanent branches 
develop only after 3 or 4 years. The geographical range of 
the Castilloa rubber tree is from 22° N. in Mexico to Peru. 
In Mexico the tree occurs chiefly in the States of Vera Cruz, 
Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, and Campeche. The Castilloa 
rubber tree is ordinarily planted at the rate of 100 to 150 per 
acre. The trees are tappable at the age of 6 or 7 years. They 
may reach a height at maturity of 175 feet and a diameter of 
4 feet. The natives of Mexico and Central America tap the 
Castilloa tree with a machete by the system of slanting cuts 
or half-herringbone method. V-cuts 8 to 12 inches apart are 
also much in favor. Spiral incisions and other methods of 
tapping have also been used by the natives. For coagulating 
Castilloa latex the natives use heat, ashes, soap, or an infusion 
of Ipomoea bona-nox. On plantations of Castilloa the methods 
employed are creaming in large vats or the use of centrifugal 
cream separators, 

Castilloa trees are commonly tapped only three times an- 
nually. The average yield is 2^ to 3 pounds per tree per 
year. Some old wild trees of great size have yielded as high 




Castilloa Rubber Trees Showing Method of Tapping 



RUBBERS AND GUMS 201 

as lo pounds of dry rubber in one year. The composition of 
Castilloa rubber varies enormously, the resin varying from 6 
to 50 per cent., as prepared by different methods. The usual 
composition of Castilloa sheets obtained by the centrifugal 
method is caoutchouc 91.5 per cent, resin 7.2 per cent., protein 
0.5 per cent, ash 0.3 per cent., and moisture 0.5 per cent. 

The Assam rubber tree (Ficus elastica) is an evergreen 
tree with smooth elliptical leaves, attaining a height of 120 
feet or more at maturity This tree is not much cultivated and 
tapping is done, for the most part, in vertical rows of wedge 
excisions made with a chisel or by means of deep V-shaped 
cuts. The tree is tappable at 6 years of age. The latex is 
coagulated by allowing it to stand for a long time or by the 
addition of formalin. The yield from wild trees is about 
50 pounds per acre and the composition of the rubber is caout- 
chouc yy per cent., resin 19.3 per cent., ash 0.5 per cent., pro- 
tein ^.2 per cent., and moisture 0.5 per cent. Various other 
species of Ficus have been exploited to some extent as sources 
of rubber. 

Rubber vines include species of Landolphia, Clitandra, and 
Cryptostegia. The species of Landolphia are woody climbers, 
native of Africa with simple opposite leaves, sweet-scented 
flowers, and large, often highly-colored edible fruit. These 
climbers are of very slow growth and are not tappable until 
they reach the age of 8 or 10 years. Some of them attain 
a diameter of 12 inches and a length of 300 feet or more. The 
rubber is collected by incising the bark and allowing the latex 
to coagulate in the cuts or by collecting the latex in the bark 
and coagulating it by heat, chemical reagents, or plant juices. 
Sometimes trunks of Landolphia are pulled down from the 
trees upon which they have been climbing, cut into short 
lengths, and the latex allowed to run out. 

The most promising root rubbers are Landolphia tholloni, 
Clitandra arnoldiana, and Raphionacme utilis. Rubber is ob- 
tained from these plants by beating the separated bark or by 



202 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

rasping and boiling the roots. The composition of the Landol- 
phia heudelotii rubber is, ordinarily, caoutchouc 91.3 per cent., 
resin 5.9 per cent., protein 1.4 per cent., and ash 1.4 per cent. 

Guayule (Parthenium argentatum) is a barely shrubby plant 
belonging to the Composite family and native of Texas, New 
Mexico, and Mexico. The plant attains a height of i to 3 
feet and is characterized by silvery gray bark and leaves, and 
yellow flowers which appear in September. The plants are 
cut, dried, and shredded and the rubber is then extracted by 
patented processes. Commercial attention was first called to 
the plant in 1876, although it must still remain doubtful 
whether the Indians were not familiar with the guayule plant 
as a source of rubber. The latex cells are in the bark and 
pith. The crude rubber obtained by the patented processes 
now in use equals 8 or 10 per cent, of the dry weight of the 
stems. Guayule rubber contains 20 to 30 per cent, of resin. 
The rubber is of fair grade and is used in the manufacture 
of rubber boots and for similar purposes. 

The rubber-yielding plants of commercial importance be- 
long chiefly to the botanical families of Euphorbiacese, Urtica- 
ceae, and Apocynacese, and to a smaller extent to Asclepiada- 
cese and Compositse. More than 80 species of trees and vines 
have been used as a source of rubber, but only those which 
have been mentioned in the previous discussion have attained 
any real commercial importance. All commercial rubber-bear- 
ing plants, with the exception of the guayule, are confined to 
the Tropics. It is a well known fact that the development 
of latex in plants seems to occur much more commonly in the 
Tropics than in the cold climates. Much discussion has been 
had as to the function of latex in plants, but no agreement 
has been reached as to what this function is. The latex has 
been supposed to be a storage material for the nutrition of 
plants. It has also been suggested that it has an important 
function in protecting trees against attacks of insects and 
against injuries. The fact that the latex runs out so promptly 



RUBBERS AND GUMS 203 

after a slight injury of the bark and coagulates within a short 
time after exposure to the air has been cited as showing how 
effectively the latex protects the tree against wounds. As al- 
ready indicated, latex commonly contains from 55 to 70 per 
cent, of water and a varying percentage of resin which de- 
creases with the age of the tree in all commercial rubber plants 
except Hevea, in which even in young trees the latex contains 
only about 2^/2 per cent, of resin. 

From many related plants the abundant latex is so low in 
caoutchouc and so high in resin that the dried product is used 
for other purposes than rubber. Some of the most important 
cases in point are chicle, balata, gutta-percha, and jelutong, 
which are discussed below. 

At the present time the areas planted in rubber are in Ma- 
laya 625,000 acres, in Java 230,000 acres, in Sumatra 160,000 
acres, in Burma 40,000 acres, in Borneo 25,000 acres, in East 
Africa 60,000 acres, in Kamerun 17,000 acres, and smaller 
areas in plantations in various other tropical countries. It is 
estimated that the total area of plantation rubber by the close 
of 1916 will represent 1,500,000 acres, and the estimated out- 
put of plantation rubber in 1920 will be 200,000 tons. Ac- 
cording to the latest available statistics, the annual production 
of wild rubber from Brazil is 45,000 tons, from Africa 21,000 
tons, from Mexico 8,000 tons, from Bolivia 3,000 tons, and 
from Peru 2,000 tons. 

The enthusiastic stampede which characterized the develop- 
ment of the rubber industry during the past twenty years led 
to the organization of many doubtful rubber companies, the 
perpetration of a great many hoaxes in the sale of rubber 
plantations, and the sale of much worthless rubber stock. Not- 
withstanding these unfortunate experiences, it is the best judg- 
ment of men most familiar with the rubber industry that 
when rubber finally reaches the stable price of 50 to 60 cents 
per pound, or perhaps somewhat lower, its use will doubtless 
be greatly extended beyond even its present development, and 



S04 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

reasonable profits will be insured to plantations which are 
managed in a businesslike way. The growth of the plantation 
rubber business is indicated by the simple fact that the export 
of rubber from Ceylon and the Federated Malay States in 
1903 was 19 tons and in 191 3 was 48,000 tons. Taking plan- 
tation rubber as a whole, 95 per cent, of it is Hevea. The 
importation of rubber into the United States in 1914 was 
143,000,000 pounds. This indicates the enormous extent to 
which the demand now comes for the manufacture of rubber 
tires. The price of rubber has fluctuated quite widely since 
rubber became a commercial industry. The lowest London 
price for Para rubber was 37 cents in 1865 and the highest 
price was $3.12 in 1910. The present prices are greatly in- 
fluenced by the European War, but it has been estimated that 
many of the plantations now in operation are prepared to 
produce rubber at a profit for 25 or 30 cents per pound. 

The United States occupies a very unimportant position in 
rubber production. Considerable plantings of Ceara, Hevea, 
and Castilloa rubber have been made in the Philippines, Porto 
Rico, and Hawaii, but practically no rubber is now coming 
upon the market from these plantations. In the Philippines 
most of the trees are still too young. In Hawaii there are 
about 1,500 acres of Ceara rubber old enough for tapping. 
In fact, the trees have been tapped with success for 3 or 4 
years. It has been found, however, that rubber cannot be pro- 
duced at a profit on the Hawaiian rubber plantations when the 
market price of rubber is less than 55 cents a pound. Tapping 
has therefore been temporarily suspended until the price of 
rubber improves. An attempt was made on one of the Ha- 
waiian islands to grow guayule but without success. The 
Hevea rubber does not thrive well in Hawaii except in pro- 
tected places not exposed to the trade winds. All kinds of 
rubber trees which have been tried in Porto Rico do well and 
seem to give promise of success. Thus far, however, there is 
no commercial rubber industry in Porto Rico. 



KUBBERS AND GUMS ^05 

GUTTA-PERCHA 

Gutta-percha is a product closely resembling true rubber 
in chemical composition but differing from it decidedly in 
physical properties. It is the product of a tree known as 
Palaquium gutta and of several other species of more or less 
related trees. These trees are native of Malaya, Cochin China, 
Central America, South America, Australia, and the Philip- 
pines. They are large trees of the family Sapotacese, with 
shiny leathery leaves, somewhat resembling those of certain 
species of rubber trees. In harvesting the gutta-percha the 
trees are cut down, after which the bark is removed and the 
latex collected by mechanical and chemical methods, or the 
trees are tapped by ringing or other kinds of incisions. The 
leaves also yield about lo per cent, of a low grade of gutta- 
percha which may be extracted with toluene. The gutta- 
percha is collected in blocks or irregular lumps weighing 5 
to 10 pounds. This mass is then put through a mangier, 
washed, and rolled into sheets. Gutta-percha is readily soluble 
in chloroform. It melts at moderate temperatures and is in- 
elastic, differing in that respect from rubber. It is used in 
surgical bandages, wound coverings, like collodion, and golf 
balls, but chiefly for outside insulation of submarine cables. 
For this purpose it has long been used in large quantities. 
Gutta-percha has furnished a basis for the insulation of 250,- 
000 miles of submarine cables. At present rubber is displacing 
gutta-percha for most purposes, but the United States imported 
1,900,000 pounds in 1914. Certain species of Sapota, Calo- 
tropis, and Euphorbia also yield gutta-percha. Gutta-percha 
is pliable at ordinary temperatures. It yields to pressure at 
122° F., may be kneaded at 194° P., and melts at 248° F, It 
is decidedly resistant to hydrofluoric acid and may therefore 
be used in vats for etching glass. 



206 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

BALATA 

Balata is another product resembling rubber but differing 
in its physical properties from both rubber and gutta-percha. 
It is the product of Minusops balata and certain other species 
of trees which occur mostly in Dutch Guiana, Venezuela, and 
Brazil. M. balata is a large tree, sometimes with a diameter 
of 6 feet. In Venezuela the trees were cut down and the latex 
was removed by applying presses to the bark. In this way as 
much as lOO pounds of balata can be obtained from a single 
tree. In Surinam the trees are tapped by vertical series of 
jabs which are made in the tree to a height of 20 feet or more. 
By this method one laborer can collect 4 to 10 gallons of latex 
per day. From one gallon of latex about 4 pounds of balata 
are obtained. Balata does not readily oxidize when exposed 
to the air, contrasting sharply in this respect with gutta-percha 
and also to a less extent with rubber. It is not ductile and 
has, therefore, been largely used in the manufacture of 
machine beltings. 

JELUTONG 

Jelutong is a rubber-like product obtained from the latex of 
a tree known as Dyera costulata, native to Malaya, Sarawak, 
Borneo, and Sumatra. The tree reaches a huge size, often 
measuring 4 to 6 feet in diameter. The jelutong trees are 
tapped mostly by long V-cuts. It has been found that these 
trees show the wound response which is also characteristic of 
Hevea rubber trees. Jelutong trees are tapped about 40 times 
a year and yield an average of about 60 pounds of jelutong 
per tree. The latex is coagulated by the natives by various 
methods, sometimes by stirring with kerosene or powdered 
gypsum. The latex contains 60 to 70 per cent, of total solids 
and crude jelutong contains about 10 per cent, of rubber. 
Jelutong comes on the market in the form of white blocks 
weighing from 30 to 50 pounds. When the high percentage of 



RUBBERS AND GUMS 207 

resin is removed from the crude product the remaining rubber 
is of high grade. Jelutong is shipped in rather large quantities 
from Singapore and is used extensively in Europe and America 
in rubber manufacture. 

CHICLE 

The sapota tree (Acras sapota) of Mexico and British 
Honduras is a stately tree which attains a height of 20 to 30 
feet, bears leathery shiny leaves, and produces a latex in the 
fruit, leaves, and bark, but chiefly in the bark. From the latex 
of the tree a gum is obtained, known as chicle, which is used 
as the basis of chewing gum. The wood of the sapota tree is 
dark purplish-red and exceedingly hard and heavy when cured. 
It is susceptible of a high polish and is very serviceable for 
cabinet purposes. The bark of the tree contains sufficient tan- 
nin to be utilized as a source of that product. 

The chicle industry is most highly developed in Mexico, par- 
ticularly between Tuxpan and the southern part of Yucatan. 
The quality of the gum obtained in Yucatan is inferior to that 
which comes from Tuxpan. In this center of chicle production 
trees are known to have been tapped for a period of 25 years. 
After such a long period of tapping, however, the latex yields 
only about 25 per cent, of gum. The tapping season begins in 
early September and the flow of latex is greatly stimulated by 
the occurrence of heavy rains. Trees which have not previ- 
ously been tapped yield 15 to 25 pounds of latex. The tapping 
process is ordinarily accomplished by V-shaped incisions so 
arranged as to allow the latex to flow downward in a continu- 
ous stream. The latex is caught at the base of the trunk in 
leaves or other simple containers. The latex from the sapota 
tree is extremely sticky. It is coagulated commonly by boiling, 
after which the gum is kneaded to press out more of the wa- 
ter. If carefully prepared, the gum is quite white, but it 
usually has a dirty, dark gray color. 

The latex from the chicle tree will coagulate spontaneously, 



208 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

land this method is often employed in the place of boiling. The 
gum is marketed in blocks weighing 20 to 30 pounds. Chicle 
was formerly used like gutta-percha in electric insulation. It 
is now used, however, entirely for chewing gum and exclu- 
sively in the United States. This country imported 5,896,000 
pounds of chicle in 19 14. The exportation of chicle from 
Mexico ranges from 1,800 to 2,200 tons annually. 

There are many other trees which yield a product similar 
to chicle. For example, Euphorbia lorifolia, a tree native to 
Hawaii, yields a latex containing 42 per cent, of total sohds. 
The solid material contains 55.9 per cent, resin, 1.5 per cent, 
gum, 15.8 per cent, caoutchouc, 12.6 per cent, protein, and 
nearly 4 per cent, of ash. A laborer can collect 40 pounds of 
latex per day. The latex of this tree is best coagulated by 
heat 80° to 90° C. 

CAMPHOR 

Camphor is a product of a tree known as Cinnamomum cam- 
phora, closely related to the cinnamon tree and a native of For- 
mosa, Japan, and China. The tree has been introduced into 
Ceylon, India, East Africa, Hawaii, California, Florida, and 
quite generally throughout the Tropics and subtropics. The 
camphor tree is quite hardy and will endure climates where 
the winter temperatures fall as low as 15° F. Before the true 
camphor came into prominent commercial use, closely related 
products were obtained from other trees. Dryobalanops aro- 
matica, a tree native of Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaya, was 
used perhaps before the true camphor tree, and the product 
obtained from it was known as Borneo camphor. Blumea hal- 
samifera, a native tree of Burma, yields what has been known 
as Ngai camphor. 

The true commercial camphor tree reaches a height of 100 
feet, a diameter of 2 or 3 feet, and is densely branched. The 
leaves are dark green, shiny, and of leathery texture. Since 
1899, the Japanese Government has tried to maintain a mo- 



RUBBERS AND GUMS 209 

nopoly on camphor. Such monopoly was thought to be possible 
in view of the great extent of camphor forests in Formosa. It 
was estimated that the Japanese Camphor Bureau could put 
on the market about 6,500,000 pounds of crude camphor an- 
nually. About 75 per cent, of the world's supply of camphor 
comes from Formosa, most of the remainder being produced 
in Japan and China. Since the year 1900 the Japanese Gov- 
ernment has planted about 1,000,000 camphor trees annually. 
The production of camphor in China has increased greatly in 
recent years and now amounts to about 1,600,000 pounds an- 
nually. 

In Formosa, camphor is obtained from trees 50 years of age 
or over. The Camphor Bureau of the Japanese Government 
at one time prohibited the cutting of trees younger than 50 
years. The percentage of camphor in the wood has been found 
to increase in old trees. 

The world's supply of camphor is now about 5.200 tons 
annually, which, as already indicated, comes chiefly from For- 
mosa. The United States imports about 2,000 tons of camphor 
annually. A synthetic camphor has been made from turpen- 
tine by various methods, but is inferior to the natural article 
and cannot compete with the latter so long as the price of 
natural camphor is not high. In fact, the so-called synthetic 
camphor is not strictly camphor, but is a product which may 
be used as a cheap substitute for camphor. As a result of the 
increasing demand for camphor, about 1,000 acres were planted 
of this crop in Ceylon in 1908 and further plantings have since 
been made in that country. The camphor tree is propagated 
from seed in nurseries. The seedlings are planted in the 
field at various distances, depending on the method of manu- 
facture which is contemplated. In the southern United States, 
particularly in Florida, where leaves and small twigs of young 
shoots are used in the production of camphor, the seedlings 
are planted 6 to 10 feet apart both ways. 

In the experiments which have been carried on with cam- 



210 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

phor in the United States it has already been shown that this 
is a promising crop, particularly for Florida. Seedling cam- 
phor trees were brought to Florida about 1870 and large plant- 
ings have been made from the seed produced by these orig- 
inal trees and from subsequent importations of seed. The 
camphor industry is growing rapidly in Florida, and it ap- 
pears that the area devoted to camphor will soon exceed 8,000 
acres. The center of camphor production in Florida is Sat- 
suma, where it was reported tliat the Du Pont Powder Com- 
pany purchased camphor plantations in January, 1916, for the 
sum of $6,500,000. Camphor is also grown, although less ex- 
tensively, in the states of Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, and Cali- 
fornia. 

Camphor is a volatile oil and is extracted by steaming the 
wood and leaves which have previously been ground to a fine 
powder. A higher percentage of camphor is obtained from 
leaves and young shoots than from old wood. On this ac- 
count clippings from young camphor seedlings are made in 
Florida for use in extracting camphor. It has been found that 
the camphor trees can be kept trimmed back to a convenient 
height for working. The camphor tree was long used in the 
South for hedges, and these hedges are now becoming of con- 
siderable value as sources of camphor. If the trees are planted 
in rows 15 feet apart and 6 feet apart in the row, it has been 
found that within 6 years from seed the trees will form a solid 
hedge, which can be trimmed at intervals to secure material 
for the extraction of camphor. Clippings can be cut from 
trees at the age of 3 or 4 years, and thereafter at least 3 or 4 
times a year. The twigs yield i to i>^ per cent, of camphor 
by weight, and it has been found that the yield of camphor per 
acre ranges from 120 to 200 pounds. 

In obtaining camphor from the leaves and twigs or wood, 
steam distillation is carried on for about 3 hours. During 
this time the camphor is condensed on the walls of the distilla- 
tion apparatus as a result of cooling from the surrounding 



RUBBERS AND GUMS 211 

water. In Ceylon the cost of producing camphor is about 2.y 
cents a pound. 

The bulk of the world's camphor is used in the manufacture 
of celluloid and in connection with nitro-cellulose compounds. 
In addition to this chief use of camphor, it is also employed 
to a less extent in the preparation of various medicines. 

OTHER GUMS AND RESINS 

All of the products which have been discussed in this chap- 
ter would be generally included under the head of gums and 
resins. Most of them, however, are of so great importance for 
specific uses that it was thought best to discuss them separately. 
A few brief notes seemed desirable in connection with certain 
other gums and resins which have some importance in the 
world's commerce. The chemical composition of gums and 
resins is not well understood. Ordinarily, gums are defined 
as amorphous CHO compounds which dissolve in water or 
take up enough water to become mucilaginous and are insolu- 
ble in alcohol. Resins, on the other hand, are CHO com- 
pounds which are insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, 
ether, and volatile oils. Balsams are a group of resins or 
oleoresins with a fragrant aroma or agreeable flavor. A well 
known example of this group of products is Canada balsam. 

Copal resin is obtained either directly from living trees or 
as a semi-fossil product. It occurs in the East Indies, South 
America, New Zealand, Africa, Sumatra, Java, Philippines, 
and Australia. Macassar, or Singapore copal, is obtained from 
Agathis loranthifolia. South American copal comes from liv- 
ing trees of HymencEa courbaril Kauri copal is a fossil resin 
from the Kauri pine {Dammara australis). The dammar resin 
of the Federated Malay States comes chiefly from species of 
Balanocarpus. The copal resins are widely used in varnishes. 

Gum arable is a gummy exudation which occurs on the 
trunks of Acacia Senegal and other species of wattle trees. 



212 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

This gum is also known as Acacia, Turkey, Senegal, India, 
and Barbary gum. In obtaining gum arabic strips of bark are 
removed from the tree and the gum is collected from the 
wounds after about 60 days. Gum arabic is used extensively in 
pharmacies in preparing pills and for holding in suspension 
substances which are insoluble in water. 

Gum tragacanth is a gummy exudation of Astragalus gum- 
mifer and other species of related plants from Syria, Armenia, 
Kurdistan, and Persia. In harvesting this gum the plants 
are incised and the gums collected in white or yellow sheets. 
Gum tragacanth is used for the same purpose as gum arabic, 
but is less soluble. 

Mastic resin is obtained from a small tree (Pistacia lenticus) 
of the Mediterranean region. The gum is obtained from trans- 
verse incisions in bark and is obtained about 3 weeks after 
tapping. The trees are tapped 3 or 4 times during the season 
from June to September. The annual yield per tree is 8 to 10 
pounds. The resin occurs in masses of a pale yellow color. 
It is brittle and melts at 108° C. Mastic was once much used 
in stomach debilities and for fine varnishes, but is being re- 
placed by other resins. 

Guaiacum resin is obtained from West Indian trees {G. offi- 
cinale and G. sanctum,). The resin occurs either as a natural 
exudation or is obtained by cutting the tree into sections and 
boring holes in the wood or by building fires under each end 
of the log and driving the resin out by heat. Guaiacum is 
widely used as a chemical indicator, being a very sensitive re- 
agent for oxidizing substances. It is also used in medicine 
as a stimulant and alterative. 

Tacamahaca resin is obtained from a Venezuelan tree {Bur- 
sera tomentosa). The resin contains considerable volatile oil. 
In the East Indies another kind of Tacamahaca resin is ob- 
tained from Galophyllum inophyllum. The resin is perhaps 
very similar to those of turpentine and is used in making plas- 
ters and ointments. 



RUBBERS AND GUMS 213 

CandelHa wax is obtained from a small Mexican spurge 
(Euphorbia antisyphilitica) . A thin coat of wax occurs upon 
the leaves and stems of this plant. The plant is propagated by 
cuttings. It has been found that wax is produced only in dry 
districts. The wax is obtained by boiling the stems and skim- 
ming the wax on the surface of the water. Candellia wax is 
used in floor waxes, varnishes, shoe polish, phonograph rec- 
ords, and for various other purposes. 

Carnauba wax is obtained from a large handsome Brazilian 
palm (Copernicia cerifera). The thin layer of wax is formed 
on the under side of the large leaves of this palm. The wax is 
scraped off and melted or the leaves are cut into pieces, boiled, 
and the wax skimmed from the surface of the water. Each 
tree produces 6 or 8 immense leaves annually. It has been 
found that on an average i pound of wax has been obtained 
from each loo pounds of leaves. Brazil exports 2,000 tons of 
Carnauba wax annually. The wax is used chiefly in fine can- 
dles, high-grade shoe polish, and phonograph records. 



CHAPTER XIV 

DRUGS 

No attempt is made in the present discussion to consider 
other than a few of the important commercial drug plants 
which grow primarily or exclusively in tropical countries. 
There are thousands of plants which have been used for the 
extraction of drugs. In fact, few plants have escaped the 
suspicion of possessing a medicinal property of one sort or 
another. In looking over the long list of drug plants one is 
reminded of the fact that a large percentage of them grow in 
northern climates. Some of the drug materials which it might 
be expected would be discussed in this chapter are referred to 
elsewhere. For example^ castor oil and star anise oil are 
treated under oils. 

CINCHONA 

Cinchona trees, from which are obtained the alkaloid quinin 
and other related alkaloids, are native to South America, where 
they grow in abundance from a latitude of io° N, of the 
Equator to about 20° S. The chief species which have been 
used as a commercial source of quinin are Cinchona ledgeriana, 
which yields the so-called yellow bark; C. succirubra, from 
which red quinin or red bark is obtained; C. officinalis, from 
which brown bark or pale bark is obtained ; and C. calisaya, the 
source of calisaya bark. Until about 1890 practically all the 
cinchona bark of commerce was obtained from wild cinchona 
trees. Since that date the trees have been cultivated quite 
extensively, particularly in Java, Bengal, Ceylon, and Mada- 
gascar. Cinchona occurs as a shrub or tree reaching a height 

214 



DRUGS 215 

of 20 to 40 feet with evergreen opposite entire leaves, and tubu- 
lar rose-colored or yellow flowers in racemes. The tree en- 
dures temperatures ranging from the hottest which occur in 
the Tropics to about 35° F. Cinchona apparently prefers a 
humid climate with a rainfall of 50 to 60 inches. 

In Java it is chiefly C. ledgeriana which is cultivated, while 
in Ceylon attention has been given mostly to C. succirubra. In 
recent years, however, the cultivation of cinchona in Ceylon 
has greatly diminished. Cinchona trees are propagated mostly 
from seed. The seed is planted in nurseries from which young 
seedlings are taken after reaching a height of about i foot and 
planted in the field at a distance of 4 feet apart. Later, during 
the growth of the trees, they are thinned to a distance of 12 
by 12 feet. The tree may also be easily propagated by budding 
or grafting. 

As already indicated, the chief source of quinin at present is 
found in the two species C. ledgeriana and C. succirubra, par- 
ticularly the former. It has been found that the percentage 
of quinin in the bark increases gradually with age up to about 
4 years. In fact, as a general rule, it is considered that the 
maximum percentage of quinin is found in bark from trees 
6 to 9 years old. The yield of bark from cinchona trees varies 
greatly. In trees 9 to 10 years old an average yield of dried 
bark is about 22 pounds per tree, of which about 15 pounds 
is derived from the trunk and smaller quantities from the 
branches and roots. The percentage of alkaloids in the bark 
also varies greatly according to species and condition. In 
wild trees the average quantity of alkaloids in the bark is 
about 6 to 7 per cent., of which one-half to two-thirds is quinin, 
at least in the case of C. calisaya, but cinchonidine is the pre- 
dominating alkaloid in C. succirubra. There are various other 
alkaloids in the bark of the cinchona trees. 

The United States imports about 3,600,000 pounds of cin- 
chona bark annually. This bark is obtained, as already indi- 
cated, from the trunk and roots, but the root bark is considered 



216 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

superior as a source of quinin. The bark is harvested by prun- 
ing and allowing the regrowth of suckers or by shaving the 
bark in strips, removing only a portion at one time and cover- 
ing the shaved strips. The renewed bark which grows from 
these peeled strips is very rich in alkaloids. 

The value of quinin for the treatment of malaria was dis- 
covered in 1638, and following upon this discovery the demand 
for bark from wild trees increased rapidly. To show the enor- 
mous interest in the cultivation of quinin it may be mentioned 
that in 1887 Ceylon produced i6,ooo,ocx3 pounds of bark, but 
this country was unable to compete with Java under the low 
prices of quinin and the production in Ceylon has therefore 
fallen to about 110,000 pounds per year. Java is now one of 
the chief quinin-producing countries. On the cinchona plan- 
tations of Java it has been found that 2 pounds of bark per 
tree per year, or about 600 pounds of dried bark per acre, is 
a good average yield. Moreover, the cinchona planters of Java 
have increased the percentage of. alkaloid in the bark by a long 
series of selections until they have obtained a strain of cin- 
chona trees of which the bark contains 15 per cent, of alkaloids. 

Cinchona trees have been found to grow satisfactorily in 
the Philippines, Hawaii, and Porto Rico, but no commercial 
production of this material has been developed within the terri- 
tory of the United States. 

COCAINE 

Cocaine is an alkaloid which is derived from the leaves of 
a shrub Erythroxylon coca, native to Peru and Bolivia. These 
countries are still the chief source of supply. The shrub at- 
tains a height of 6 to 8 feet and bears alternate, shiny, entire- 
margined leaves and small white flowers. The shrub is much 
branched and the bark of the branches and trunks is light gray 
in color. This shrub thrives best in the humid valleys of the 
Andes. It is cultivated to some extent in Bolivia, Guiana, and 
western Brazil, but for the most part the leaves are obtained 



DRUGS 217 

from wild plants. The cocaine shrub is propagated from 
seeds. The young seedling trees, taken directly from the nurs- 
ery, are planted about 4 by 4 feet. The first picking of leaves 
is obtained at the age of 25^ years. Thereafter the leaves may 
be picked several times annually. Only mature leaves are used 
as a source of cocaine. After picking, the leaves are quickly 
dried and packed in moisture and air-proof containers for 
shipment. On an average, 100 pounds of leaves will yield i 
pound of cocaine. The Bolivian cocaine leaves appear to yield 
the highest percentage of the drug cocaine. The leaves of this 
shrub also contain a number of other alkaloids beside cocaine. 
In the countries where this plant grows the natives frequently 
acquire the habit of chewing the leaves either alone or mixed 
with lime and tobacco. It is commonly believed that this habit 
has the effect of increasing the resistance of the laborer to 
fatigue, to the loss of sleep, and to the lack of food. The co- 
caine bush grows vigorously in Hawaii and in the Philippines, 
but no effort has been made to develop an industry in the 
growth of cocaine, largely for the reason that much hesitation 
has been felt toward exposing American laborers more widely 
than necessary to the cocaine habit. 

OPIUM 

The opium poppy {Papaper somniferum) is a native of 
India and Asia Minor, but has also been cultivated extensively 
in China, Queensland, Persia, Turkey, and various other coun- 
tries. It is an annual poppy and occurs under 2 or 3 varietal 
forms. The best variety for medicinal use is cultivated in 
Asia Minor. The seed is sown in drills 2 feet apart and about 
10 inches in the drill. The plant blossoms 3 months after 
seeding and within 10 days thereafter the seed capsules are 
ready to be tapped. In obtaining crude opium the green cap- 
sule is lanced at intervals of about 1-30 inch by a set of parallel 
blades. The lancing is commonly done during dry weather in 



218 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the evening. The latex exudes, coagulates in the cuts, and 
is collected the next morning. The collections are fashioned 
into masses or blocks weighing up to 20 pounds and in this 
form the crude opium comes upon the market. Crude 
opium is a black tar-like mass with a characteristic nauseating 
odor. 

The petals are removed at the time of flowering, dried, and 
used as a covering for the opium blocks. The United States 
imports about 450,000 pounds of crude opium annually, mostly 
from Turkey and Persia. Several alkaloids are obtained from 
crude opium, especially morphine, codeine, narcotine, and papa- 
verine. Crude opium ordinarily yields from 5 to 22 per cent, of 
morphine and from 0.5 to 2 per cent, of codeine. Opium ob- 
tained from Turkey has the highest percentage of morphine, 
while Persian opium stands next, and Indian opium has the 
least morphine. 

The opium industry of India has given rise to a vast amount 
of literature on politics, anthropology, and medicine. It is 
quite unnecessary for present purposes to discuss the great 
extent of the opium habit in India and China in former years 
or the political complications which arose during the devel- 
opment of this industry. The value of the opium export from 
India in 1906 was over $30,000,000 and of this amount opium 
to the value of more than $24,000,000 went to the treaty ports 
of China. 

The variety of poppy grown in India and China is largely 
used for smoking and eating. At present, however, an anti- 
opium campaign of great intensity and extent is being 
maintained in China and the cultivation of the poppy has in 
consequence been greatly restricted. 

NUX VOMICA 

Nux vomica is the trade name for the seed of Strychnos nux- 
vomica, a small tree native to Ceylon and India. This tree bears 



DRUGS 219 

elliptical, thick, leathery leaves, and white flowers in terminal 
cymes. The fruit is large, round, and yellow and contains flat 
gray seeds from which the alkaloid strychnin is obtained. The 
seeds yield i to 2^ per cent, of strychnin and about an equal 
amount of the alkaloid brucine. In the Phihppines it has been 
found that the seeds oi S. ignatii also yield strychnine. 

CUBEBS 

The climbing perennial pepper (Piper cuheha), native of 
Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, bears diecious flowers in close 
spikes and berries on long pedicels. The unripe fruit in a 
dried condition is the official cubeb. The plant is propagated 
by cuttings and the cultural conditions required by cubebs are 
the same as those practiced in the cultivation of pepper. The 
world's supply of cubebs comes largely from Java and Su- 
matra. The material has frequently been adulterated with other 
species of Piper. The fruit contains from 10 to 15 per cent, of 
a volatile oil, which is further discussed under oils. 

IPECACUANHA 

The ipecac plant {Psychotria ipecacuanha) is a small per- 
ennial shrub, native of Brazil, with creeping stems and monili- 
form or variously twisted roots. From a horizontal root- 
stock numerous fibrous, capillary, or thick roots issue. These 
roots contain a white parenchyma and are covered with a 
brown epidermis. The leaves are smooth, entire, obovate, and 
pointed. The plant grows generally throughout the coast of 
Brazil and inland up to rather high altitudes. Most of the 
ipecac of commerce comes from the province of Matto Grosso. 
The ipecac plant is propagated largely by seed or by sprouts 
from pieces of roots which may be left in the soil. When the 
roots attain full size they are dug and dried in the sun. The 
dried roots are the official ipecac. Under cultivation the yield 



g20 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

of dried roots is about 600 pounds per acre. Ipecac roots con- 
tain the three alkaloids emetine, cephaeline, and psychotrine, 
as well as ipecacuanhic acid. The alkaloid emetine is expector- 
ant in action, while cephaeline is decidedly emetic. England 
imports about 50,000 pounds of ipecac annually and the United 
States a corresponding quantity. 



INDIAN HEMP 

Indian hemp (Cannabis sativa) is a common fiber plant 
widely cultivated in various countries for its excellent fiber. 
The hemp industry was formerly far more important in Ken- 
tucky and certain other Southern States than at present. On 
account of the fact that the drug obtained from this plant 
has been chiefly called Indian hemp it has often been thought 
that the plant from which the drug was obtained was a differ- 
ent species than the fiber plant. As a matter of fact, however, 
hemp has been cultivated in most countries for its fiber and in 
India, especially in Bengal, for its drug product. Hemp has 
long been grown for this purpose in various parts of India 
and Ceylon. Recently, however, its culture for this purpose in 
Ceylon has been prohibited. 

When the plant is cultivated for the production of the drug 
the male flowers are removed to prevent fertihzation. The 
drug exudes as a resin on all parts of the plant. The leaves 
and tips of the twigs are steeped to make hashish. For this 
purpose the flowering tops are compressed into masses from 
which the best grade of the drug is obtained. These masses 
contain 15 to 20 per cent, of the resin cannabin from which an 
intoxicating fixed oil and also an essential oil are obtained. In- 
dian hemp is somewhat used in the United States in veteri- 
nary medicine as a powerful sedative. The effects produced 
by the use of hashish, or Indian hemp, are stupefying and 
hypnotic in nature. The natives of India and others who have 
become addicted to the use of hashish describe the sensations 



DRUGS 221 

produced by this drug as in the nature of agreeable dreams 
followed by a sort of voluptuous stupor. 

COPAIBA 

Copaiba balsam is obtained from the tree Copaifera langs- 
doriii, native of Brazil, attaining a height of 50 to 60 feet with 
pinnate, leathery leaves and apetalous flowers. Copaiba is an 
oleoresin which collects in cavities in the trunk of the tree. 
It is also collected by artificial tapping. For this purpose 
grooves or cuts in other shapes are made in the trunk in the 
summer, and the transparent, colorless liquid is allowed to 
exude and dry into the resin. As much as 10 or 12 pounds of 
this resin may be collected from a single tapping. 

PERU BALSAM 

This balsam is obtained from a leguminous tree {Myroxylon 
pereirce), native of South America, attaining a height of 50 
feet, with alternate, pinnate leaves, white flowers, and one- 
seeded pods. The balsam naturally collects in the cavities in 
the bark of young twigs, where it is obtained by bark incisions 
or exudes from bark wounds in the trunk. A very fragrant 
form of the balsam is also obtained from the fruit. The tree 
from which the Peru balsam is obtained sometimes reaches 
a diameter of 2 feet, the bark is thick, the sap wood almost 
pure white, and the bark wood reddish-brown. The wood is 
extremely hard and has been used for various purposes as 
timber. 

TOLU BALSAM 

The tolu balsam tree {M. tolmferum) is taller than the tree 
from which Peru balsam is obtained, higher branching, but 
otherwise like the Peru balsam tree. Tolu balsam in the crude 
form contains 75 per cent, resin, which also yields the oil 
toluol used in dyes and as a volatile antiseptic. 



gSS TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

ALOES 

Aloes is a plant belonging to the lily family, native of India 
and Africa, but also cultivated in the West Indies for the drug 
and elsewhere as an ornamental. Aloe perryi yields Socotrine 
aloes, has white spines on the leaves, and spikes of orange-red 
flowers. A. vera yields the Barbados aloes, has yellow leaf 
spines, and yellow flowers. A. spicata of Africa yields the 
drug known in trade as Cape aloes and has white flowers. The 
plants resemble agaves, or century plants in habit of 
growth. 

The drug is the dried juice of the leaves which are cut into 
sections, after which the juice is allowed to run out and is 
then concentrated by boiling, or is allowed to dry sponta- 
neously. Socotrine aloes is yellowish and brings the highest 
price. Zanzibar aloes is a dark brown variety of Socotrine 
aloes. Both the Curagao and Barbados aloes come from the 
Dutch West Indies. In fact, the main supply of aloes is now 
obtained from Curagao. Aloes is used in both human and vet- 
erinary medicine as a cathartic. 

CALABAR BEAN 

This is a woody leguminous climber {Physo stigma veneno- 
sum), native of Africa. It bears violet-colored flowers and a 
flattened, pointed pod containing 2 or 3 seeds or beans. Sev- 
eral alkaloids are obtained from the ripe beans, but the most 
important is eserine or physostigmine. Eserin is one of the 
most powerful alkaloids and has the specific effect of greatly 
stimulating the involuntary musculature of the intestines and 
blood vessels. The Calabar beans yield about 0.25 per cent, of 
eserine. The plant attains a length of 30 to 50 feet and be- 
comes almost shrubby at the base. The beans are for the most 
part collected from wild vines since thus far the plant has not 
been, extensively cultivated. 



DRUGS 223 



CATECHU 



The drug catechu is obtained from Acacia catechu and also 
from Uncaria gambir. Both of these trees are native to India 
and the East Indies. A. catechu is a leguminous tree closely 
related to the black wattle. The astringent drug catechu is 
obtained by boiling the heartwood, after cutting it into chips, 
until the extract becomes a black tar-like mass. In this form 
the material is called black catechu or cutch. Pale catechu, also 
called gambler or terra japonica, is obtained by boiling the 
leaves and twigs of the climbing shrub U. gambir. The mate- 
rial is used chiefly as a brown dye and is discussed under tans 
and dyes. 

JALAP 

Jalap is a perennial twining plant (Exogonium purga), na- 
tive of Mexico and also cultivated in Jamaica, India, and else- 
where. The plant bears cordate leaves, purple flowers, and 
tuberous roots. The roots are collected in the fall and care- 
fully dried. The dried roots are the official drug. These roots 
contain 8 to lo per cent, of the resin, consisting largely of a 
glucosid jalapurgin, which is the active principle of the plant. 
The jalap belongs to the morning glory family and the flowers 
closely resemble those of some of the cultivated varieties of 
morning glory. The roots occur as irregular globoid masses 
connected by long strands of underground root-stocks. 

SARSAPARILLA 

There are several kinds of sarsaparilla which have been used 
for medicinal purposes. The Mexican sarsaparilla has been 
obtained from Smilax medica, the Jamaica sarsaparilla from 
S. officinalis, and Para sarsaparilla from 5". papyracea. These 
plants are all climbing vines provided with tendrils, shiny 
leaves, and spiny stems, resembling in that respect our common 



224. TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

green brier which belongs to the same genus. The plants are 
indigenous to the tropical regions from Mexico to Brazil. The 
official drug sarsaparilla is the dried roots of the plant. These 
roots contain about 2 per cent, of saponin, which is the active 
principle. The American sarsaparilla is Aralia nudicaulis, 
an entirely different and unrelated plant. 

SQUILL 

This drug is obtained from a plant (Urginia scilla), native of 
the Mediterranean country. At the base of the plant an onion- 
like bulb is developed. The bulb scales are cut into sections 
and dried in the sun or in desiccators by the use of artificial 
heat. Squill has a diuretic and purgative action. 

SENNA 

The drug senna is obtained from small shrubs which are 
native to Egypt and Arabia. Alexandrian senna is obtained 
from Cassia acuti folia and Indian senna from C. augustifolia. 
The leaves of all the common species of Cassia are pinnate and 
the flowers yellow, resembling sweet pea flowers in shape. 
Senna is quite extensively cultivated in India. The dried leaves 
and the pods are used in medicine for their laxative properties. 
Senna is also cultivated to some extent in the Desert of Sahara. 

Purging cassia (C. fistula), a native tree of India, is widely 
cultivated throughout all tropical countries as an ornamental. 
The tree reaches a height of 20 to 40 feet, has a smooth gray 
bark, and handsome racemes of large pale yellow flowers. The 
pods are 5^ to i inch in diameter and often attain a length of 
2^ feet. The supply of the drug from this plant comes chiefly 
from Central America, South America, and India. The tree 
begins bearing at the age of 4 years. The pulp in the pods 
is a thick, brown, molasses-like substance with a heavy odor. 
It contains 50 per cent, of sugar and also a laxative principle. 




Betel Nut Palm in Siam 




Mangrove Jungle in Florida 



DRUGS m5 

The tree grows chiefly throughout Ethiopia and in the Levant. 
In some localities this tree is called Golden Shower on account 
of its profusion of beautiful yellow flowers. 



AWA 

The Awa plant, or Kava-Kava (Piper methysticum) belongs 
to the same genus with black pepper and is native of Hawaii 
and other Pacific Islands. It is a small shrub 2 or 3 feet high 
with a large spongy root. The roots have been collected by 
the Polynesian natives since prehistoric times for use in prepar- 
ing an intoxicating beverage. The plant has not been generally 
cultivated, but for the most part the roots have been obtained 
from wild plants. Recently about 300 acres were planted to 
Awa in Hawaii. This renewed interest in Awa is due to the 
high price for the roots which followed upon a reputed dis- 
covery of the value of the roots for medicinal purposes. A 
few years ago the price of the roots was as high as $700 a ton. 
At present, however, the price is hardly sufficient to warrant 
the cultivation of the plant. It is propagated by stem cuttings. 
The roots are dug at the age of 3 or 4 years. Since the plant 
has been used for medicinal purposes the price of the roots has 
ranged from $50 to $700 per ton. The roots contain 50 per 
cent, of starch and 3 resins, one of which is an anesthetic in- 
toxicant. The physiological effect of Awa is to produce a com- 
plete muscular paralysis. 

ARECA NUT 

The Areca nut, also called Betel nut, is a tall handsome palm 
(Areca catechu), 40 to 100 feet high, and native of Malaya 
and Ceylon. This palm bears a large cluster of yellow nuts 
about the size of a hen's egg. The kernel of the nut is sliced, 
mixed with lime and the leaves of betel pepper, and chewed by 
the natives. Among the natives of India the habit of chewing 
the Betel nut is almost as common as the chewing of gum 



226 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

among Americans. The teeth are stained black as a result 
of constantly chewing the Betel nut. It is considered to be a 
preventive of dysentery. Areca nut is also used as a vermi- 
fuge, especially in veterinary medicine, as a dentrifrice, and 
also extensively in tanning. Ceylon exports about 8,000 tons 
annually. 

QUASSIA 

The drug and insecticide material known as quassia has been 
derived from two species of trees, one known as Quassia 
amara in Surinam, and the other known as Picrasma excelsa of 
Jamaica. The official drug quassia, used in Europe, is derived 
from the first species, while in the United States the supply 
comes from the second species. Surinam quassia is a shrub 
5 to 15 feet high. The wood of the root and trunk is used 
as the source of an extract which is employed as a bitter tonic 
for medicinal purposes. This tonic is considered of unusual 
value on account of the fact that it exercises few of the un- 
favorable effects which are characteristic of tonics. The flow- 
ers of the Surinam quassia are of a brilliant red color. 

The Jamaica quassia, on the other hand, is a handsome tree 
attaining a height of 100 feet or more and a diameter of 3 feet. 
This tree bears greenish flowers. The extract obtained from 
the wood of this tree has been used for various purposes. It 
is sometimes substituted for hops for the purpose of making 
beer bitter. The wood is quite commonly used for cabinet 
purposes, being of peculiar value on account of its immunity 
to insect attacks. 

Quassia chips have been extensively used as a source of a 
bitter insecticide, especially employed in the control of aphis 
or plant lice. This material has been used perhaps most widely 
in controlling the hop aphis in the Western States. For this 
purpose, quassia has proved to be exceedingly effective and 
cheap. The insecticide quassia is commonly prepared by boil- 
ing one pound of quassia chips in one or two gallons of water. 



DRUGS 227 

after which the solution is diluted to make lo gallons of spray- 
ing material. This insecticide has also proved to be an excel- 
lent repellent for ants. 

STROPHANTHUS 

Strophanthus is a twining shrub (S. kombe) of the family 
Apocynaceas and native of Zambesi and eastern Africa. The 
shrub bears opposite leaves and showy flowers. The ripe seeds 
yield strophanthin, an active principle which has the effect of 
paralyzing the involuntary muscles. Strophanthus has been 
widely used by the African natives as an arrow poison. 



JABORANDI 

The jaborandi is a small shrub (Pilocarpus jahorandi), na- 
tive of Brazil, with pinnate leaves and small flowers in loose 
spikes. The dried leaves are the official drug. The leaves 
contain about i per cent, of pilocarpin, an alkaloid used in 
medicine to increase perspiration and salivation. 

CROTON OIL 

This product is obtained from Croton tiglium, a shrub or 
small tree native of India. The tree bears alternate oblong 
leaves, small flowers in loose racemes, and 3-celled capsules 
containing seeds like castor beans. The seeds contain a fixed 
oil (croton oil) which is obtained by pressure. Croton oil is 
a well known violent and poisonous purgative. 

The physic nut (Jatropha curcas) is a small shrub, native of 
Central America and South America. The seeds of this plant 
yield an oil resembling croton oil in its physiological proper- 
ties. A similar oil is also obtained from Euphorbia calyculata, 
known as Mexican croton oil. 



CHAPTER XV 
TANS AND DYES 

The bark and other parts of trees and herbaceous plants in 
tropical countries show a much greater tendency toward the 
production of tannin than is the case in cold countries. This 
fact has led to thorough search of commercial sources of tan- 
nins, especially in tropical woods. The commercial rank which 
different sources of tannin occupy changes somewhat from 
year to year as the transportation facilities and other matters 
concerned with the economics of production are altered by 
changing circumstances. On account of the active quest for 
suitable sources of tannin, much attention has been given 
to the percentage of tannin found in crude substances collected 
as sources of tannin. 

The dyestuffs of vegetable origin have undergone great fluc- 
tuations in value and importance since they first came into large 
industrial use. In recent years the markets of the world have 
been flooded with cheap synthetic dyes which have had the 
effect of greatly checking the production of natural dyestuffs. 
None of these artificial dyes is equal in value to the natural 
dyes and in view of the great disturbances in the dye mar- 
ket resulting from the European War it would seem de- 
sirable that attention be again given to renewing and extending 
the production of such natural dyestuffs as cutch, logwood, 
gamboge, indigo, madder, saffron, safflower, etc. These dyes 
are not only superior to the artificial dyes for technical pur- 
poses, but are harmless and some of them possess medicinal 
properties, 

828 



TANS AND DYES 229 

GAMBIER 

Gambler is used both as a dye and a tanning agent. It is 
also frequently called cutch, terra japonica, and catechu, 
although these terms are not strictly synonymous. The prod- 
uct which comes upon the market under the name gambier is 
derived from Uncaria gamhir, a climbing shrub of the madder 
family, largely cultivated near Singapore and in Java and also 
from Acacia catechu and A. suma. In preparing the tanning 
material the leaves and twigs of U. gamhir and the heartwood 
of A. catechu are boiled until they yield a sirupy extract, which 
is then allowed to harden. Gambier comes upon the market 
in purple resin-like masses. It contains 25 to 50 per cent, of 
tannic acid. The catechu obtained from A. catechu is chewed 
by the natives of India as a gum. This plant should not be 
confused with Areca catechu or the Betel-nut palm. Gambier 
is also used to some extent in medicine, but chiefly as a dye- 
stuff for the production of browns, fawns, olives, and drabs. 
It gives a strictly fast color and is much used in dyeing khaki. 
The United States imports nearly 14,000,000 pounds annually. 
The leaves and spherical flower clusters of the gambier re- 
semble somewhat those of the button bush of the United States. 
This plant is now extensively cultivated in Java, where much 
profit has been found in its production with the result that the 
area cultivated to gambier is increasing. 

MANGROVE 

Mangrove trees of several species, particularly Rhisophora 
mucronata, R. mangle, etc., are native of Ceylon and the Orien- 
tal Tropics. These trees are of medium size and exhibit a 
wide-spreading growth of branches. They are found in the 
brackish swamps and muddy lagoons, inside coral reefs, and in 
similar situations. The mangrove tree appears to stand on a 
much branched system of roots, somewhat resembling Pan- 



230 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

danus in this respect. In harvesting the mangrove as a source 
of tannin the bark is stripped, dried, and packed in bales for 
shipment. Mangrove bark yields about 40 per cent, of tannin. 
The bark also yields a form of cutch. The United States im- 
ported 5,500 tons of mangrove bark in 1914. Extensive areas 
of swamp land in the Philippines are covered with mangrove 
trees, and a beginning has been made in harvesting this bark for 
tannin. Similar large areas of mangrove swamps occur also 
in Malaya. 

WATTLE BARK 

Wattle bark as a source of tannin is obtained from Acadia 
decurrens and various other species of the same genus native 
to Australia. These trees are also cultivated in India, Ceylon, 
Hawaii, Natal, and various other parts of the Tropics. The 
seeds are grown in nurseries and the young seedlings are then 
transplanted at distances of 6 to 12 feet apart both ways. The 
young trees are occasionally pruned in order to encourage the 
development of straight trunks. The trees may be cut and the 
bark stripped off at the age of 5 or 6 years, but the highest 
percentage of tannin in the bark is obtained at the age of 10 
years or older. At this time the bark contains 40 per cent, 
tannin. On an average an 8-year-old tree will yield about 25 
pounds of dried bark, while the yield from a fully mature tree 
is about 100 pounds. Wattle bark is also sometimes called 
mimosa bark. It is much used, especially in tanning sole 
leather. Wattle trees are short lived, and in order to secure 
the greatest harvest of bark the trees should be cut at the age 
of 10 to 15 years. 

QUEBRACHO 

Quebracho extract and bark has recently assumed unusual 
importance as a tanning agent. The commercial product is 
obtained from a large tree {Loxo pterygium lorentzii) of South 
America, particularly Brazil and Argentina. The wood of the 



TANS AND DYES £B1 

quebracho tree is unusually hard. The trees cover enormous 
areas in Argentina, where they occur in almost pure stands. 
The heartwood of quebracho contains 20 to 25 per cent, of 
tannin and the extract of this wood gives a reddish color to 
leather. In 1914 the United States imported 74,000 tons of 
quebracho wood and 93,000,000 pounds of extract of que- 
bracho. It is one of the hardest known woods. The bark and 
sap wood are useless for tanning purposes and only the heart- 
wood is used as a source of tannin. The quebracho logs which 
are shipped to the United States sometimes come from trees 
which were 1,000 years old or more. The quebracho extract 
is called a sweet tan since it does not ferment. It is used in 
tanning harness, belting, and sole leather. It penetrates leather 
rapidly and uniformly. 

DIVI-DIVI 

A small leguminous tree {Ccesalpinia coriaria), native of 
Central America and West Indies, produces small twisted pods 
which are used as a source of tannin and which bear the trade 
name divi-divi pods. The tree reaches a height of 20 feet 
and bears white flowers and flat pods about ^ inch wide and 3 
inches long. These pods yield from 30 to 50 per cent, of tan- 
nin. Divi-divi pods are used in the tanning industry as a 
substitute for sumac and oak gall apples. The tree is propa- 
gated by seed and planted about 16 by 16 feet apart both ways. 
The pods are picked when fully ripe. Mature trees yield from 
40 to 75 pounds of dried pods annually. 

LOGWOOD 

This well known dyestnfif is obtained from a small legumi- 
nous tree (Hematoxylon campechianum) , native of Central 
America, but now introduced into nearly all parts of the 
Tropics. At present logwood is produced chiefly in Mexico, 
Haiti, Dominican Republic, Cuba, and other West Indian Is- 



TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

lands. The United States imported 40,000 tons of logwood in 
1914. The tree is propagated by seed, usually in nurseries, 
and the young seedlings are then transplanted about 15 by 15 
feet apart both ways. The trees are felled at the age of 10 
to 12 years. The bark and white sapwood are removed and 
the red heartwood is packed in bales or bundles for shipment. 
The wood yields a red dye known as hematoxylin. 

GAMBOGE 

Several species of the same genus of trees (Garcinia cam- 
hogia, G. morella, and G. hanburyi) yield the commercial prod- 
uct gamboge. These trees are native of the East Indies, Cey- 
lon, Siam, and Cambodia. The gamboge belongs to the family 
Guttiferze and the tree attains a height of 30 to 50 feet. A 
yellow viscid latex exudes from incisions made in the bark 
and dries into a hard mass upon exposure to the air. The best 
quality of gamboge comes from Siam. Crude gamboge yields 
about 70 per cent, of a beautiful yellow resin which is soluble 
in alcohol and is used by painters to give the well known gam- 
boge yellow. Rarely, gamboge is employed in medicine as a 
violent cathartic. 

FUSTIC WOOD 

Fustic wood has long been used as a source of yellow and 
brown dyes for leather and wool. The importation of this 
wood into the United States since 1905 has ranged between 
3,000 and 4,500 tons annually. On account of the present 
scarcity of aniline dyes the importation increased during 191 5 
to about 14,000 tons, and the value of the wood has also con- 
siderably increased. 

Fustic wood is obtained from Madura tinctoria, a tree closely 
related to the osage orange and native of the West Indies and 
tropical America. The sap wood of this tree is thin and the 
greater part of the thickness of the tnmk is therefore heart- 
wood, which is light yellow when fresh, gradually turning to a 



TANS AND DYES 

yellowish-brown. Europe imports fustic wood chiefly from 
South America, while the United States obtains its supply of 
the wood principally from Mexico and the British West Indies. 
Fustic wood is imported largely in sticks 2 to 4 feet long and 
3 to 8 inches in diameter, but also in the form of chips, powder, 
or paste. 

A number of substitutes have been used for adulterating 
fustic wood, among them osage orange, smoke tree (Rhus cot- 
inus), southern prickly ash, espino, satinwood, yellow logwood, 
and other West Indian species of Xanthoxylum. For some 
purposes the wood of osage orange has been considered as 
superior to true fustic wood. The osage orange has been used 
successfully in conjunction with logwood and various other 
mordant dyes. The dye obtained from osage orange appears 
to be equally as fast as that of fustic wood. Both of these 
woods are used in producing dye for leather and many experi- 
ments along this line have already been conducted by certain 
tanneries. Osage orange is used chiefly for making wagon 
felloes and fence posts. The irregularity of the trunks, how- 
ever, occasions large waste, estimated at 40,000 to 50,000 tons 
annually in Texas and Oklahoma. 

As already indicated the osage orange is closely related to 
true fustic and belongs to the botanical species Madura pomi- 
fera. True fustic has often been called old fustic to distinguish 
it from so-called young fustic, which was obtained from the 
wood of Rhus cotinus. The latter attains only a small size, sel- 
dom furnishing sticks more than 3 inches in diameter. On ac- 
count of the use of the term young fustic for these sticks of 
wood the idea gained ground that they were small branches 
of the true fustic tree. 

BRAZILWOOD 

Several species of the leguminous genus Caesalpinia have 
been used as a source of dyes. One of these trees, known as 
C, brQsiiiemsis, has been called Brazilwood, although this term 



234 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

is essentially a misnomer since the tree does not occur in Brazil. 
Brazilwood and the related species, Pernambuco wood (C. 
echinata), both furnish a yellowish heartwood which has long 
been recognized as having a value for dye purposes. In the 
East Indies another species, C. sappan, commonly called Sap- 
panwood, has been far more extensively used as a source of 
dye, the wood being shipped in large quantities from India to 
Europe. In the Pernambuco wood the sapwood is extremely 
thick, while the commercial heartwood constitutes only a small 
cylinder of the tree. Brazilwood yields a red dye known as 
brazilin, which is used in calico printing, especially in mixed 
reds and browns and also in red ink. Sappanwood yields a 
red dye, formerly much exported from India. Dyestuff is ob- 
tained from the wood, bark, or pods of this tree, but chiefly 
from the wood. The Sappan dye is especially valuable in dye- 
ing wool and calico. 

Camwood or barwood (Baphia nitida) comes from a large 
leguminous tree native of Angola and other parts of Western 
Africa. It yields a brilliant red dye. The United States im- 
ports only a few hundred tons of this wood annually, but it is 
employed much more extensively in England. Camwood dye 
is used mostly in calico printing. 

INDIGO 

The vegetable dye indigo is obtained from a number of 
shrubby perennial or annual legumes (Indigofera tinctoria, 
I. anil, I. arrecta, etc.). These plants attain a height of 2 to 6 
feet and readily escape from cultivation, covering large areas 
of ground as a weed. The indigo industry was once quite 
widely spread, but is now confined largely to India, Siam, Java, 
and Natal. Since the year 1880, synthetic indigo has made 
the cultivation of indigo unprofitable except in favorable locali- 
ties. The natural dye, however, is superior to the artificial 
product and is still in demand. 



TANS AND DYES 235 

In propagating indigo the seeds are sown in rows about 2 
feet apart. The flowers appear about 3 months from the 
time of seeding. The plants are then cut and steeped in water 
for 12 to 16 hours, after which the water is run off into an- 
other vat where it is actively agitated for 2 or 3 hours until 
the indigo forms by oxidation and settles to the bottom. 
The water is then drained off, leaving the blue precipitate 
which is cut into blocks and dried. In the experience of in- 
digo planters in India it has been found that a yield of 20,000 
pounds of green material per acre is satisfactory. The yield 
for the rattoon crops is somewhat less. From 20,000 pounds 
of green material about 500 pounds of indigo paste is obtained. 
The best grade of indigo is obtained from Java. In Java it 
has been demonstrated that indigo may be grown profitably 
in combination with tea by planting the indigo as an intercrop 
between the tea plants. After harvesting the indigo the plant 
residues may be used as a fertilizer for the tea. 

The indigo plant is extremely hardy and, as already indi- 
cated, will propagate itself as a weed even if totally neglected. 
It has already been distributed throughout nearly all of the 
tropical countries. It seems more than probable that the pres- 
ent high prices of dyestuffs will bring about a revival of the 
industry of producing natural indigo. 



HENNA 

Henna (Lawsonia alba) is a much branched shrub, native 
of Persia, Egypt, Arabia, India, etc. The shrub bears oppo- 
site oval leaves and at maturity reaches a height of 8 to 10 
feet. The dyestuff henna is obtained from the leaves and 
young shoots. The first clipping of young shoots with the 
leaves may be made at the age of 3 years and clippings may 
be made twice annually thereafter. The leaves are dried, 
ground, and made into a paste with water. This material is 
used by Oriental women as an orange cosmetic for the eye- 



236 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

brows, finger nails, and hair, and by Oriental men for finger 
nails, hair, and beard. Henna is used in India in coloring 
leather and certain fabrics. At one time it was widely used 
in France as a dyestuff for silk fabrics. Otherwise the ma- 
terial is used chiefly in the Tropics. The plant has been dis- 
tributed from Persia and Egypt to various parts of the Tropics. 
It is hardly cultivated at present, however, except in Turkey, 
Persia, Egypt, and East Indies. The henna production of 
Egypt at one time reached the extent of 6,000,000 lbs. annu- 
ally. Henna makes a fast dye, whether used on fabrics or as 
a cosmetic. 

MADDER 

Madder is a herbaceous climber (Rubia tinctorum) with 
perennial roots. The plant is cultivated in various countries 
from Afghanistan to Spain. It is propagated by seed or 
clippings. The dye is made from 3 or 4-year-old roots. These 
roots are prepared in the form of an infusion which yields 
the beautiful scarlet madder or coffee-brown color. The 
plant is still cultivated to a small extent in several countries, 
and the best grade of the dye comes from the Levant and 
Italy. Rubia cordifolia, a plant native to India, is used for 
the same purpose. Madder root comes on the market either 
whole or powdered. One of the active coloring substances 
in madder is alazarin. This substance has been synthesized 
by industrial chemists and an artificial madder dye of inferior 
quality is now upon the market. 



ANNATTO 

This well known dye, which has been used for coloring 
butter and cheese, is derived from Bixa orellana, a bush or 
small tree native of Central America and South America. 
The plant is cultivated in Guiana, Ceylon, Brazil, Guadeloupe, 
Zanzibar, and in other tropical countries. The bush attains 



TANS AND DYES 237 

a height of 7 to 10 feet and bears cordate leaves, blue flowers 
in terminal clusters, and ovoid, spiny, two-valved pods, con- 
taining 30 to 50 seeds. The seeds are surrounded with a scar- 
let tissue from which the dye is obtained. Annatto seeds 
are shipped with their scarlet covering or the scarlet paste 
is removed and shipped as such. England uses about 75 tons 
of annatto annually and corresponding quantities are imported 
into the United States. The tree is propagated from seed 
and begins bearing at the age of 3 years. Annatto dye has 
been used in coloring lacquer, calico, and wool, but chiefly 
as a coloring matter for butter and cheese. The active prin- 
ciple of annatto is annatoin. 



SAFFLOWER 

Saiflower (Carthamus tinctorius) belongs to the Composite 
family, resembling the thistle somewhat in general habit of 
growth. It attains a height of 2 to 4 feet and bears beautiful 
yellow or orange yellow heads of flowers. The safflower is 
native of India, whence it was introduced in ancient times 
to Egypt, the Levant, and various other tropical and sub- 
tropical countries. At the present time the chief source of 
saffiower is in Bengal and southern France. The flowers are 
picked in dry weather and are immediately desiccated in an 
oven. During the period of drying the flowers are slowly 
pressed together into cakes in which form the product comes 
upon the market. In Bengal farmers prefer lands which are 
subject to overflow in growing saffiower. The seed is sown 
broadcast in December and plants are later thinned out so 
as to stand 4 or 5 inches apart. The flowers are ready for 
picking about 100 days after the crop is sown. In India 
the saffiower is grown both for the dye obtained from the 
flowers and for an oil obtained from the seed, but chiefly for 
the red dye. Saffiower has been found to be an exhausting 
crop and has to be grown, therefore, in a system of rotation. 



238 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

The flowers are readily injured by rain storms which may 
occur after they are fully opened. It has been learned that 
the flowers must be picked as soon as they begin to be brightly 
colored. Any delay may allow a fading of the dyestuff in the 
petals. The average yield of dry flowers is about 80 pounds 
per acre. 

SAFFRON 

The dyestuff saffron is obtained from the stigmas and tips 
of the styles of Crocus sativus. This form of Crocus was 
apparently native to Greece and Asia Minor. At any rate, it 
has been cultivated in those countries since the earliest times. 
The plant is a perenn'al with a rounded bulb and large hand- 
some bluish or lavender flowers. Large quantities of saffron 
are produced in Persia and Egypt. The plant thrives in 
cold countries. As is well known, it is grown in the United 
States as an ornamental, but a good quality of saffron has 
been produced in Pennsylvania. The saffron crocus is a fall 
bloomer and a different variety from the spring blooming 
ornamental. The labor cost of producing saffron, however, is 
too high for the encouragement of this industry in the United 
States. As already indicated, official saffron includes the stig- 
mas and tips of the styles of the saffron flowers. These parts 
are clipped off as soon as the flowers open and are dried in 
the sun or by the aid of artificial heat. It requires 5 pounds 
of fresh stigmas to make i pound of dried saffron. The 
present supply of saffron comes largely from Trieste, Spain, 
Greece, and Turkey. Saffron is used both as a medicine and 
as a dyestuff. It is readily soluble in water and therefore not 
suitable for use on fabrics. It is perfectly harmless, however, 
and has been widely used in coloring food products. 



CHAPTER XVI 

SPICES AND FLAVORINGS 

Spices played a very important part in the history of Europe 
during the Middle Ages and up to the i6th century. The first 
knowledge of tropical spices was perhaps brought to Europe 
by Arab and Jewish tradesmen. These materials brought 
large prices and were widely sought by the courts and aris- 
tocracy of European countries. The existence of spices in 
far-off, and at that time unknown tropical countries, led to 
great activity in the building of sailing vessels and to deep 
study of navigation by sailors. In fact, the geography and 
history of the whole world have been much modified as a 
result of the struggle for the possession of spices. The quest 
of spices took the form of a furor which affected some of 
the European States almost as much as the Crusades. When 
Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached 
India, the primary result of his expedition was to lay the 
foundation of a colonial empire for Portugal, giving Portugal 
a large supply of spices. Later the Dutch activities in India 
and the East Indies led to an attempt to secure a monopoly 
of the whole spice trade, in which complete success was at- 
tained in so far as cinnamon was concerned till the year 1833. 
The success of the Portuguese and Dutch led to great efforts 
of colonization on the part of the English and to the estab- 
lishment of the Straits Settlements and other English colonies 
in Asia. 

All tropical spice plants of economic importance were native 
to the Asiatic tropics with the exception of vanilla, capsicum, 
and pimento, which come from the American tropics, and 

239 



MO TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

grains of Paradise and Ravensara nuts, which come from 
Africa. 

ALLSPICE 

Allspice, also commonly called pimento (Pimenta officinalis), 
is a tree native to Jamaica and other West Indies and Cen- 
tral America. It has sometimes been referred to as Eugenia 
pimenta. The tree attains a height of 15 to 40 feet and bears 
opposite shiny leaves. The leaves contain an essential oil 
which is used like that of Pimenta acris in the preparation of 
bay rum. The flowers of the allspice tree are small and white 
and the tree bears a purple one-seeded fruit about the size of 
a pea. In ripening the fruit loses much of its aroma. It is 
therefore picked before fully ripe. The fruit clusters are 
cut from the tree with a crook or curved knife at the end of 
a bamboo pole, or if more convenient the branches are pulled 
down with a curved stick and the fruit clusters clipped off. 
The fruit is dried in the sun for 3 to 12 days or in a fruit 
evaporator, after which the material is ready for market. 
Allspice is propagated by seed, the planting distance being 
about 20 by 20 feet. The bush begins to bear at about 8 
years of age and reaches full bearing at 15 years. The aver- 
age yield of mature trees is about 75 pounds of dried fruit 
per tree per year. At present the world's supply of allspice 
comes chiefly from Jamaica, which country exports about 
11,000,000 pounds annually. An oil is extracted from the 
pimento fruit and is sold under the name pimento oil. This 
matter is further discussed under oils. The commercial all- 
spice is not closely related to other plants which sometimes 
bear the name allspice with certain qualifying adjectives. 
Carolina allspice, for example, or sweet-scented shrub, bears 
the botanical name Calycanthus fioridus and the wild allspice 
of the Northern States is Lindera benzoin. 



SPICES AND FLAVORINGS Ml 

CARDAMOMS 

The cardamom plant is a perennial herbaceous plant (Elet- 
taria cardamamum) , native of Ceylon and India and belong- 
ing to the same family with ginger. The plant produces 
large creeping rhizomes or rootstocks and leafy stems 6 to lo 
feet high in dense clumps. The leaves, somevi^hat resembling 
those of the ginger, are i to 3 feet long and are provided 
with conspicuous pinnate veins. The flowering stems are 
about 2 to 3 feet high and bear numerous flowers in short 
racemes. The fruit of the cardamom is rounded and usually 
somewhat 3-angled. It is 3-celled, each cell containing about 
5 seeds. The fruit is picked in a green condition, dried, and 
bleached in the sun and usually further bleached by sulphur- 
ing. The capsules are then cream white and papery in tex- 
ture, being about 3^ to % inch long. Cardamoms are propa- 
gated by division of the rootstocks, which are planted about 
8 feet apart both ways. During the early stages of growth 
some shade is desirable. The cardamom plant begins to bear 
at the age of 3 years and comes into full bearing at 6 years. 
From this time on for many years a yield of 100 to 300 pounds 
of dried cardamoms may be expected per acre. The plant 
bears the year round but the best crop is obtained during 
the dry season. It is desirable to harvest the fruits by cutting 
them off with scissors. A good day's picking for one laborer 
is 10 to 15 pounds. The world's supply of cardamoms comes 
almost entirely from India, especially the Malabar coast and 
Ceylon. Ceylon exports about 500,000 pounds annually. 
Cardamoms are used as an ingredient of curry powders, for 
flavoring cakes and liqueurs, and in aromatic drugs and for 
various other purposes. 

CASSIA BARK 

The cassia tree of southern China (Cinnamomum cassia) 
is closely related to the true cinnamon and is said to have 



242 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

been used since 3000 B. C. in China as a substitute for cin- 
namon. The tree attains a height of 25 to 50 feet and closely 
resembles in appearance the true cinnamon tree. Cassia bark 
was used as a spice in various countries long before true cin- 
namon was employed for that purpose. The best grade of 
Chinese cassia bark, or cassia lignea, is nearly as aromatic 
as true cinnamon and may be used for the same purposes. 
Young trees are cut down at the age of 6 years and the 
branches harvested for their yield of bark. The bark is slipped 
from branches about i inch in diameter and flattened out, after 
which the epidermis is removed with a plane. The bark is 
then dried for a period of about 24 hours and baled. 

All parts of the plant may be used for distillation of cassia 
oil. The dried unripe fruits, called cassia buds in trade, are 
much used in the place of cinnamon. The United States 
imports about 6,000,000 pounds of cassia bark annually. In 
China there are approximately 60,000 acres devoted to the 
cultivation of cassia. The yield averages i^ tons per acre 
every 6 years. The bark of C. iners and C. sintoc of Malaya 
and of C. massoia of New Guinea is also used for the same 
purpose. In India the leaves of C. tamala and C. obtusi- 
folium are almost universally used by the natives as a spice. 
The fallen leaves have been found to be just as aromatic as 
the freshly picked leaves. It is only necessary, therefore, to 
have a tree or two in the dooryard to furnish a continuous 
supply of flavoring material for home use. 



CINNAMON 

The true cinnamon (Cinnamomum seylanicum) of Ceylon 
and India is a tree attaining a height of 20 to 60 feet with a 
densely branched compact head, dark green leathery leaves, 
and small yellow flowers in lateral and terminal panicles. 
Ceylon cinnamon is commonly considered of finer quality than 
that from Malabar. In the early days of the cinnamon in- 



SPICES AND FLAVORINGS 243 

dustry, the bark was collected from wild trees. Under cul- 
tivation it has been found that the tree thrives best at an 
elevation of about i,ooo feet. The cinnamon tree is propagated 
by seed. The young seedlings are planted at distances of 
6 to 12 feet apart both ways. Most planters consider that 
some shade for the cinnamon tree is desirable. The tree may 
also be propagated from cuttings. In fact, this is a quicker 
method than that of planting the seed. The seedlings may be 
cut the second or third year. Three or four shoots appear 
from each seedling stump and with the constant repetition 
of this process the plantation finally becomes a thicket. As 
a rule, two harvests are made each year by cutting the 2 or 
3-year-old canes at a time when the bark slips readily. The 
twigs are at once carried to the peeling shed, where they are 
ringed and split longitudinally, after which the strips of bark 
are stripped off. These strips of bark are kept moist over 
night, the epidermis being scraped off next morning. In drying 
the strips of bark roll into quills. These quills are packed in 
"pipes" by selecting the larger unbroken quills and packing the 
smaller quills inside of them. The pipes weigh about i ounce 
and are packed together in bales of approximately lOO pounds. 
About one-third of the cinnamon exported is in the form 
of chips and broken pieces. Cinnamon also comes from French 
Guiana, Brazil, and the Federated Malay States. Ceylon 
exports about 6,500,000 pounds annually. The yield is about 
100 pounds of dried bark per acre. The chief uses of cin- 
namon are familiar to practically all readers. It is also 
employed as a medicine and as an incense. The large per- 
centage of the cinnamon bark is used in the production of 
cinnamon oil, which is discussed under oils. 



CHILIES 

Chilies, or capsicum peppers (Capsicum minimum, C. an- 
nuum, and C. frutescens) are familiar herbs or semi-shrubby 



24)4 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

plants in almost every garden throughout the Tropics and even 
in temperate climates. C. minimum, or bird pepper, attains a 
height of 2 or 3 feet. The leaves are thin and narrowly lanceo- 
late and the white flowers are about ^ inch in diameter. The 
fruit is of an orange or scarlet color, oblong in shape, and 
^ to % inch in length. This plant is extensively cultivated 
in East Indies, Zanzibar, Japan, and various other tropical 
countries. It is the source of most of the cayenne pepper of 
commerce. C. onnuum is taller and bears larger leaves and 
pods, 3 inches in length. This pepper is commonly called 
capsicum or pod pepper and is extensively cultivated in Cali- 
fornia and the Southern States. If grown as annuals, the 
crop is harvested in about 8 months. In the Tropics the plants 
may be allowed to stand for 3 years or more. It is propagated 
by seed and planted at distances which allow from 6,000 
to 10,000 plants per acre. The ordinary yield of dried 
chilies per acre varies from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds an- 
nually. 

The bird pepper pods are thoroughly dried in the sun and 
then in an oven, after which the pods are beaten to a powder. 
In the further preparation of the material about 15 times as 
much flour is added to the beaten pepper powder and the 
mixture is then baked and later ground to make the common 
red or cayenne pepper of the trade. Capsicum peppers are 
used in curry, in Hungarian paprika, in tabasco sauce, as red 
or cayenne pepper, as feed for cage birds and domestic fowls, 
and in medicine. 

In India it appears that chilies do best on sandy loam and 
alluvial soils or on upland soils containing an abundance of 
lime. The crop is always affected favorably by a previous crop 
of legumes. Chilies may be allowed to grow for many 
years as ornamental plants or for household use. Poultry 
raisers quite commonly have a few of these plants in 
chicken yards. Most domestic fowls appear to be fond of 
the peppers. 



SPICES AND FLAVORINGS 245 

CORIANDER 

Coriander is an annual umbelliferous plant (Coriandrum 
sativum), i or 2 feet high, with pinnate leaves and small 
umbels of white flowers. It is a native of the Mediterranean 
region and is most extensively propagated in India and South- 
ern Europe. The fruit or seed consists of two concave halves. 
This spice has been known since the dawn of history. It 
is widely used in curry powder, in confectionery, and in 
flavoring gin and whisky. 

CAPER 

Caper is a trailing shrub (Capparis spinosa), a native of 
the Mediterranean countries and now chiefly cultivated in 
Sicily, Italy, the southern part of France and in the Southern 
States. The unopened flower pods are gathered every morn- 
ing and at once pickled in salt and vinegar. This material is 
used in flavoring meat sauces. It is slightly laxative in effect. 

CURRY POWDER 

Curry powder is a mixed condiment, widely used through- 
out the Orient to flavor rice and meats, particularly poultry. 
Curry powders commonly contain sago or tamarind as a basis 
of the paste to which are added curry leaves (Murray a 
kceningii), turmeric, fenugreek, ginger, chilies, pepper, cara- 
way, cinnamon, etc. 

CUMMIN 

Cummin is an annual plant i to 2 feet high with seeds much 
like those of caraway but slightly larger. The flowers are 
rose-colored and borne in small umbels. The plant bears the 
botanical name Cuminum cyminum. It is a native of the 
Mediterranean region and is now grown chiefly in Malta, Per- 
sia, Turkey, and Punjab. Cummin seed are used chiefly as an 
ingredient of curry and in native medicinal preparations. 



£46 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

PEPPER 

The source of the common black and white pepper of 
commerce is the plant known botanically as Piper nigrum 
of Ceylon and southern India, This plant is chiefly culti- 
vated in Penang, Malabar, Sumatra, Ceylon, Java, Africa, and 
the West Indies. The pepper plant is a woody climber with 
alternate ovate, smooth leaves, and catkins of small flowers 
opposite the leaves. When mature the catkins are 3^ inch in 
diameter and 4 to 6 inches long. Each catkin bears about 50 
berries or pepper corns. The plant is strictly tropical in habitat, 
being cultivated about 20° north and south of the Equator. 
It requires a heavy rainfall. The pepper plant is commonly 
propagated by cuttings from the tips of the bearing vines. 
The cuttings should be well rooted before planting. 

Pepper plants require some support during their growth. 
For this purpose trees are preferable to artificial support. The 
mango, Jack fruit, and Erythrina tithosperma are commonly 
recommended for this purpose. Pepper begins bearing at 3 
years of age and reaches full bearing at 7 years. The fruiting 
life of the plant is from 7 to 15 years. If hardwood posts or 
artificial supports are used, the planting distance may be 7 feet 
apart both ways. At that rate the yield should be 2,000 pounds 
of pepper per acre. Pepper berries are red when ripe but 
turn black in drying. 

Black pepper is the ground berries with the outer covering. 
If the outer covering is first removed by soaking in water 
and rubbing, the resulting product when ground is white 
pepper. In other words, white pepper is made from the rip- 
ened seeds only. In preparing white pepper the fruit is al- 
lowed to ripen more fully than for black peper. Black pepper 
is more pungent than white pepper but the white pepper is 
usually preferred in the trade. Pepper is perhaps most ex- 
tensively used in the sausage-making and meat-preserving in- 
dustries, while the table use of pepper is secondary from a 



SPICES AND FLAVORINGS 247 

commercial standpoint. The United States imports about 
25,000,000 pounds of pepper annually. 



LONG PEPPER 

The long pepper plant is closely related to the common 
commercial pepper and bears the botanical name Piper longum. 
It is a creeping but not climbing woody vine, native to Bengal, 
Assam, and Ceylon. The plant bears cordate, pointed leaves 
and erect fruiting branches about i inch long. The whole 
spike of red drupes is marketed as long pepper. The plant 
is propagated by suckers which are planted at a distance of 
5 feet apart both ways. Long pepper begins bearing during 
the first year and reaches a full yield at 3 years of age. There- 
after about 1,000 pounds of the product are produced annually 
per acre. Long pepper is used as a spice and in native medi- 
cine. P. ofUcinarum of Java produces larger leaves and a more 
pungent fruit. This product is used for the same purposes 
as long pepper and is commonly known as Javanese long 
pepper. Ashantee pepper {P. clusii), a plant native to western 
Africa, has not been cultivated but the wild fruit is much 
used by the natives as spice. 



GRAINS OF PARADISE 

A herbaceous plant belonging to the same family with ginger 
and native of western tropical Africa yields the spice known 
as grains of paradise {Amomum melegueia). The plant 
attains a height of 5 or 6 feet and bears leafy stems 
and spikes of showy flowers on traiHng shoots which rise 
from the rootstocks. The seeds are used as a substitute for 
pepper. The product is also employed in veterinary medi- 
cine and for flavoring wine, vinegar, and cordials. Grains 
of paradise come upon the market chiefly from the Gold 
Coast. 



S48 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

CLOVES 

The search for cloves was one of the important attractive 
forces which drew the saiHng vessels of Portugal, Holland, 
and other European countries to the Asiatic Tropics. Cloves 
are obtained from a bushy tree 12 to 40 feet high, native to 
the Moluccas. The tree is now chiefly cultivated in Ceylon, 
Zanzibar, Sumatra, Spice Islands, and West Indies. The tree 
bears the scientific name Eugenia caryophyllata. It thrives 
only near the sea and up to an elevation of nearly 1,500 feet. 
The erect branches of the tree give it a conical form. The 
flowers are borne at the tip of the twigs in small clusters. 
The cloves of commerce are the dried unopened flower buds. 
This product was apparently first used in China about 200 
B. C. The Portuguese controlled the trade in cloves up 
to 1600 A. D. and the Dutch maintained control until the 
year 1700. 

The clove tree is propagated by seed planted in nurseries 
under shade. The seedlings are planted 30 feet apart both 
ways. The tree begins to bear at 4 to 5 years of age. In the 
Molucca Islands two pickings a year are practiced. In har- 
vesting cloves the flower buds are gathered by hand or are 
knocked off the trees by means of bamboo poles. The buds 
are then dried 6 to 8 days in the sun. Care is always ob- 
served in preventing dew or rain from falling on them during 
the drying process since moisture causes them to turn black. 
The buds lose about 50 per cent, in weight during the process 
of drying. Cloves are used as spice, as a source of clove oil, 
which is discussed under oils, in perfumery, soaps, toilet ar- 
ticles, confectionery, liqueurs, medicine, microscopy, and 
for various other purposes. A clove plantation at maturity 
yields about 10 pounds of dried cloves per tree. The 
world's supply comes chiefly from Zanzibar, Pemba, Penang, 
and Amboyna. Zanzibar alone exports 9,000 tons of cloves 
annually. 



SPICES AND FLAVORINGS U9 

GINGER 

The well known plant which is a source of commercial 
ginger (Zingiber officinale) is native to southern Asia, but 
ginger is now cultivated throughout the Tropics. It is a peren- 
nial herb belonging to the family Scitamineas, with leafy stems 
1 8 to 24 inches high and leaves 6 to 8 inches long and i inch 
wide. The plant bears a terminal cone of handsome curiously 
shaped flowers on a separate stalk or occasionally at the end 
of the leaf stalk. The flowers are yellowish-white, with a black 
and yellow spotted lip. The white, scaly, aromatic rootstock 
is the source of ginger. These roots are dipped in boiling 
water, peeled, and dried or may be merely washed and dried. 
In Jamaica it is customary to classify ginger as yellow or 
blue, referring to the color of the rootstock. Yellow ginger 
is preferred. A mountain variety of ginger is widely used 
in China in making the familiar preserved ginger. 

Ginger is propagated only by short cuttings of the roots. 
It is planted in rows 24 inches apart and 14 inches in the row. 
Ginger is commonly cultivated by a system of raised beds. 
The roots are harvested about 10 months from the time of 
planting, maturity of the roots being indicated by a withering 
of the leaves. The yield ranges from 1,000 to 2,500 pounds of 
dried ginger per acre. In drying the roots lose about 70 per 
cent, of their weight and then contain about 10 per cent, of 
water. Drying is accomplished in the sun or by the use of 
artificial heat. 

Ginger is an important crop in Malabar, Bombay, Malaya, 
Sierra Leone, Fiji, Barbados, and Santa Luzia, but especially 
in Jamaica, which exports about 2,000,000 pounds of dried 
ginger annually. The United States imported 3,500,000 pounds 
of ginger in 1914. Ginger is used as a spice, in confectionery, 
beverages, curry, medicine, and as preserved ginger. The 
essential oil, called ginger oil, from the rootstocks is used in 
the essence of ginger. Experiments have shown that ginger 



250 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

will thrive well and produce an excellent crop in Hawaii, 
Porto Rico, and the Philippines, but no commercial industry 
in producing ginger has thus far been developed in these 
countries. 

NUTMEG 

The nutmeg was sought no less eagerly than cloves by the 
early explorers of the Asiatic Tropics. Nutmeg is obtained 
from a bushy tree (Myristica fragrans), native to the Moluc- 
cas and Dutch East Indies. The tree attains a height of 25 
to 50 feet or sometimes even 70 feet. It bears shiny, coriace- 
ous leaves and diecious flowers. The female flowers are small 
and pale yellow in color. The handsome fruit is globular 
or pear-shaped, orange-yellow when ripe, 2^ inches long, 
and pendulous. The fruit is inclosed in a firm, acid, 
aromatic husk, 5^ inch thick, containing the shiny brown seed 
or nutmeg which is surrounded by a beautiful scarlet 
lace-work or aril which is the source of the mace of 
commerce. 

A good grade of nutmeg in the shell measures i inch in 
diameter. On ripening the husk splits into two halves. The 
fruit is then picked or allowed to fall, after which the nut is 
separated from the mace and both products are thoroughly 
dried. The shell is then removed from the nut. The com- 
mercial nutmeg is therefore the kernel. The nutmeg tree 
begins to bear at the age of 7 years and reaches its full bearing 
power at about 30 years of age, at which time each tree bears 
from 2,000 to 5,000 nuts per year. The tree lives to be 100 
years old or more and bears two crops annually. It is propa- 
gated by seed sown in nurseries. When the seedlings reach 
a height of 10 inches they are planted at a distance of 25 feet 
apart both ways. Most of the male trees are cut out so as to 
leave one male to 10 female trees. Some shade is usually 
provided for the young trees. The yield of mace is usually 
about I pound per 10 pounds of nutmeg. 



SPICES AND FLAVORINGS 251 

The chief supply of nutmeg and mace comes from Banda, 
Sumatra, Minahassa, Java, Amboyna, Penang, Singapore, and 
the West Indies. The production of nutmeg is increasing 
most rapidly in the West Indies. The Penang mace is most 
highly prized, while Banda mace is also fairly good. Mace 
from Batavia and Singapore, however, is inferior. Nutmegs 
are used in spice, seasoning sausages and other meat products, 
for making nutmeg butter, which is discussed under oils, 
and as a source of nutmeg oil which is distilled from the nut. 
Mace is used chiefly as a spice, being far more delicate than 
nutmeg and much more highly prized. 

The nuts oi M. argentea of New Guinea are sometimes used 
to adulterate nutmegs and are likewise largely employed in 
the manufacture of soap. The calabash nutmeg (Monodora 
myristica) of western Africa produces seeds with a flavor 
resembling that of nutmeg and sometimes used for the same 
purpose. Clove nutmeg (Agathophyllum aromaticum) from 
Madagascar and equatorial Africa produces nuts sometimes 
known as Ravensara nuts, which are used as a substitute for 
nutmeg. 

TURMERIC 

The commercial product turmeric is obtained from a peren- 
nial herb (Curcuma longa) belonging to the same family with 
ginger. The plant is a native of Cochin China but is now 
propagated everywhere in tropical Asia. Turmeric reaches 
a height of 2 or 3 feet and bears long lanceolate leaves in 
tufts of 6 to 10. The white or yellow flowers are borne in 
scaly, conical spikes. The rootstocks are thick, scaly, and 
ringed, and of a bright orange color. In India, about 60,000 
acres are devoted to the production of turmeric, chiefly in Ben- 
gal, Madras, and Bombay. The most of the turmeric in the 
trade comes from Madras and Bengal. 

Turmeric is propagated by division of the rhizomes, or roots, 
much as in the case of ginger. The plants are commonly cul- 



25^ TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

tivated in ridges or raised beds and the yield is about 2,000 
pounds per acre. 

In harvesting this crop the roots are washed, heated in earth- 
enware pots, and then dried in the sun for a week or more. 
In India, turmeric roots are used fresh in the preparation of 
curry. Dried turmeric is used in curry powder and for color- 
ing pickled preparations and sweet meats. Turmeric is also 
employed to some extent as a dyestuff. A number of other 
species of the same genus, C. aromatica, C. caulina, C. angusti- 
•^ folia, and C. amada, have been used as a source of starch, 
spice, condiment, dyestuff, cosmetics, and drugs. 

Zedoary (C. zedoaria) was once quite widely used as a 
spice but is now employed only by the natives of East Indies 
in curry powder. The lesser galangal (Alpinia ofhcinarum), 
belonging to the same family, produces red roots. This plant 
is cultivated only in China. It is used in Russia in medicine 
and for flavoring beer, vinegar, and liqueurs. The greater 
galangal {A. galanga) is cultivated in Malaya and Java. It 
develops a very large root with a buff flesh which is used in 
curries and native medicine. 



VANILLA 

Vanilla is one of the few important spice plants which 
were found indigenous in tropical America. The plant from 
which practically all of the commercial product is obtained 
is {Vanilla planifolia) native of Mexico and Central America. 
The vanilla is a large, climbing orchid, with shiny, succulent 
leaves 4 to 8 inches long, and racemes of large pale green 
flowers. The plant was first used as a spice by the Aztecs, 
and is now cultivated throughout the Tropics, ranging 20° 
north and south of the Equator. Vanilla requires a hot, moist 
climate and much humus in the soil about the roots. Trees, 
stakes, or trellises for support are distinctly required in the 
cultivation of this plant. Vanilla is propagated only by cut- 



SPICES AND FLAVORINGS 253 

tings about 3 to 4 feet long which are planted at the base of 
stakes 9 feet apart both ways or at the base of nurse trees. 
The cuttings are first rooted in the nursery. 

Vanilla plants may be pruned back at the age of 18 months 
in order to induce a habit of branching or they may be allowed 
to climb to a height of 10 to 15 feet and to become pendulous 
from above. Like other orchids, the flowers of the vanilla 
are naturally fertilized by insects, but the proper insect species 
are not everywhere present. Vanilla has been introduced into 
many countries where its natural insect visitors are not to be 
found. In practical vanilla growing, hand-pollination of the 
flowers is therefore necessary. For this purpose a pencil or 
splinter of bamboo is commonly used. The flower is held in 
the left hand and the lip pressed down so as to expose the 
pollen masses which are thereupon transposed to the stigma 
by means of the pencil or bamboo stick. Pollination is usually 
carried on from 7 a. m. to 3 p. m. One man after sufficient 
practice can fertilize 500 to 2,000 flowers per day. The period 
from fertilization to mature pods ranges from 4 to 9 months, 
varying greatly in different countries. 

A good vanilla plant at full bearing may put out as many 
as 200 racemes of flowers bearing altogether 2,000 to 4,000 
flowers. In practice, it has been found desirable to pollinate 
not more than 6 to 10 flowers per raceme. The vanilla pods 
reach a length of 4 to 6 inches and are harvested when the 
tip begins to turn yellow. The curing of the pods is the most 
important process in the vanilla industry. The pods are dipped 
in water at a temperature of 195° F. for 15 to 30 seconds. 
The pods are then put in an oven for 15 minutes, then wrapped 
in blankets and exposed to the sun until afternoon, and then 
stored in a closed room over night. This process is repeated 
for 6 to 10 days, at which time the pods become flexible and 
are of a deep chocolate-brown color. The fermentation process 
is then considered as being complete. The subsequent 
processes in curing vanilla consist largely in properly drying 



254. TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the pods. For this purpose the pods are exposed in a ven- 
tilated drying room for a period of i to 2 months. Various 
other processes have been adopted for sweating and fermenting 
the vanilla pods to develop the proper aroma. 

The vanilla plant flowers once a year and begins to bear 
at the age of 3 years. The world's vanilla crop amounts to 
about 600 tons of pods annually. Vanilla-producing coun- 
tries at present stand in the following order: Tahiti, Mexico, 
Reunion, Comores, Madagascar, Seychelles, Guadeloupe, Mau- 
ritius, and Ceylon. Vanilla is used chiefly in flavoring choco- 
late liqueurs, and confectionery. The artificial vanillin has 
been made synthetically from eugenol, the characteristic prin- 
ciple in oil of cloves. Artificial vanillin is much cheaper than 
real vanilla but has not succeeded in displacing the latter to 
any great extent. Vanillon (F. pompom) of Mexico yields 
a low-grade vanilla. This product is much more easily cured 
than the commercial vanilla and the pods do not show a ten- 
dency to split during the process of curing. The flowers are 
larger and the pods considerably thicker. 



CHAPTER XVII 

PERFUMES 

As in the case of spices and flavorings, so in the discussion 
of perfumes it will be desirable merely to consider some of 
the more important perfumes which are produced largely or 
exclusively in the Tropics. Several hundred species of plants 
have been used as sources of perfume. Perfumes for the most 
part are essential oils and some of these oils which have been 
used for other purposes as well as for perfume will be dis- 
cussed in the following chapter under essential oils. 

Commercial perfumes in the form in which they are placed 
on the retail market are almost invariably of mixed composi- 
tion. They contain various essential oils as a basis or body 
of the perfume to which a minute quantity of some expensive 
essential oil is added, thus giving the trade name to the oil 
mixture. Many synthetic products have been prepared and 
these products enter largely into the composition of ordinary 
perfumes. 

YLANG-YLANG 

One of the most delicate and evanescent perfumes known 
in the whole perfume industry is ylang-ylang, which is derived 
from the flowers of Cananga odorata, a rapid-growing tree na- 
tive to the Philippine Islands, Java, and the other East Indies 
as well as to southern Asia. The tree is a graceful orna- 
mental and attains a height of 60 to 75 feet. The finest ylang- 
ylang oil comes from Manila. Handsome greenish-yellow 
flowers appear every month. Petals from fully opened flowers 
in May and June yield the highest grade of oil. In preparing 

255 



256 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the oil the petals are carefully distilled. It has been found 
from experience with this material that 300 to 350 pounds of 
flowers will yield i pound of oil. Ylang-ylang oil is easily 
damaged to a serious extent by exposure to light and aSr. 
It is also extremely volatile and will readily escape except 
from very tightly-stoppered bottles. Manila exports about 
4,500 pounds of ylang-ylang oil annually. The perfume which 
is sold under the name ylang-ylang commonly contains cologne 
water, essence of rose, tincture of vanilla, tincture of tolu, 
and oil of neroli, to which a minute quantity of ylang-ylang 
oil is added. An excellent quality of this oil is produced in 
Reunion, where the yield is reported as being frequently as 
high as 2 per cent, of the flower petals by weight. Good 
samples of ylang-ylang oil have also been received from the 
Comoro Islands, while the oil received from Mauritius is of 
inferior aroma. Madagascar has also given considerable atten- 
tion to the production of this oil. 

FRANKINCENSE 

The term frankincense is applied to various resins which 
yield a strong fragrance in burning. Olibanum, a resin exud- 
ing from Boswellia serrata and other species of this tree in 
India and Africa, is also known as frankincense. Olibanum 
occurs as clear yellow drops of resin on the bark of these 
trees and is used for burning in religious celebrations and for 
scenting pastilles and in fumigating powders. The resins in 
certain species of fir and croton have also been used for the 
same purpose under the name frankincense. 

TONKA BEAN 

The tonka bean comes from a large leguminous tree {Dip- 
teryx odorata) which bears handsome violet-colored flowers 
and long fibrous pods containing the black bean. The tree 



PERFm^IES 257 

occurs in wide distribution in South America. Venezuela is 
the source of nearly all the tonka beans of commerce. The 
pods are collected and dried, after which the beans are removed 
and soaked in 65 per cent, alcohol for 6 to 8 hours. The beans 
are then dried again. In the process of drying the beans 
become frosted or coated upon the outside by the deposition 
of the crystalline volatile resin on the surface of the bean. 
For the purpose of increasing the amount of frosting on 
the surface of the beans sugar is added to the alcohol. Occa- 
sionally, rum is employed for partly saturating the beans 
before they are finally dried for the market. The tonka bean 
is used for scenting tobacco and snuff and in the preparation 
of fumigating powders, perfumery, sachet powders, and in 
confectionery as a substitute for vanilla. About 60,000 pounds 
of tonka beans are exported annually from Venezuela. 

CASSIE 

Cassie is the name which has been given to the perfume 
obtained from a leguminous shrub. Acacia farnesiana, origi- 
nally native to West Indies but now occurring throughout the 
Tropics. In many tropical countries the shrub becomes an an- 
noyance or veritable pest on account of its progressive habit 
of spreading. This is notably true in Hawaii and Texas. The 
cassie is cultivated as a source of perfume, particularly in 
France, India, and Algeria. The shrub attains a height of 4 
to 20 feet and bears graceful bi-pinnate leaves and small globu- 
lar heads of yellow flowers. The harvesting of the flowers is 
rendered somewhat difficult by the dense branching of the 
bushes and the numerous spines on the branches. In Hawaii, 
this bush is known as klu. In India 2 pounds of flowers per 
tree is considered a satisfactory yield. In Algeria, 1,000 
pounds of flowers per acre are commonly obtained, while in 
France, under cultivation, a yield of 5,000 pounds of flowers 
per acre has been secured. The flowers are best when picked 



258 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

in the early morning. The oil is obtained by the process of 
enfleurage, as is the case with many of the more delicate 
perfumes. This process consists essentially in dissolving the 
essential oil in a fixed oil like cocoabutter or coconut oil, 
after which the essential perfumery oil is dissolved out in 
alcohol. Cassie has been widely used as a basis of sachet pow- 
der. The flowers were at one time used in Hawaii to make 
a perfume which was sold under the name Pua Hawaii. The 
aroma of the essential oil of the flowers of this bush is ex- 
tremely delicate, in some cases being nearly equal to that of 
ylang-ylang oil. The dried flowers are worth about 50 to 60 
cents per pound. In France and Algeria, the wholesale price 
of the flowers is often not above 25 cents per pound. 

MYRRH 

This well known perfume of classic antiquity is obtained 
from Balsamodendron myrrha, a tree which is native to the 
Red Sea region. The tree exudes a gum-resin which has 
been widely used in the Orient as perfume and in Europe and 
the United States as a tooth tincture for hardening the gums. 
The resin also yields 2 to 10 per cent, of the essential oil of 
myrrh. 

BENZOIN 

A gum- resin known as benzoin exudes from the trunk of 
the tree (Styrax benzoin), native to Siam, Sumatra, and tropi- 
cal Asia. Ordinarily, the resin is harvested by tapping the 
tree. In the tapping wound a resin exudes like pine resin. 
Benzoin comes upon the market in large yellow or brown lumps 
and is chiefly used in scenting toilet waters and soaps. 

OIL OF NEROLI 

The true oil of neroH is distilled from flowers of the bitter 
orange and is produced chiefly in southern France, but also to 



PERFUMES 259 

a less extent in various tropical countries, particularly Al- 
geria, Tunis, and the West Indies, where the industry has 
recently become established. In France, it has been found 
that 500 pounds of the flowers of the bitter orange yield i 
pound of oil. The oil of neroli is chiefly used in perfume 
blends. The difficulty of securing sufficient labor appears to 
be the chief reason why the production of neroli oil in Al- 
geria and Tunis has not been more extensive. The perfume 
of the flower of these countries is said to be extremely deli- 
cate. When instead of the flowers the leaves, small twigs, 
and young fruit of the sour orange are distilled, a perfume 
oil is obtained which comes upon the market under the name 
petit-grain oil. 

FRANGIPANI 

This term is ordinarily used for a compound perfume pre- 
pared according to a formula of the Marquis Frangipani and 
containing sandalwood oil, musk, sage, orris root, neroli oil, 
and various other constituents. The name has also been given 
to the essential oil distilled from the red, white, and yellow 
flowered temple trees (Plumeria rubra and P. acutifolia), 
which are native to Central America and the West Indies, 
but are now widely cultivated about Buddhist temples in Cey- 
lon, China, and Japan, and also in Japanese cemeteries. Fran- 
gipani has also been used as the trade name for certain sachet 
powders prepared partly from cassie flowers. 

BERGAMOT 

Citrus bergamia, a well known species of the citrus tribe, 
yields an oil which comes upon the market under the name 
bergamot. This oil is produced chiefly in Italy, more espe- 
cially in the province of Calabria. The oil is expressed from 
the fresh rind of the fruit by special machinery. For this 
purpose the fruit is gathered in November and December. The 



260 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

oil is greenish and contains some chlorophyll. It is used in 
scenting fine toilet soaps and in certain mixed perfumes. The 
essence of bergamot commonly contains 8 per cent, of the oil 
of bergamot per 5 quarts of alcohol. The United States 
imports about 65,000 pounds of bergamot oil annually. 



CHAMPACA OIL 

A large handsome tree (MicheUa champaca), native of 
Java, India, and other parts of the Oriental Tropics, yields an 
oil which bears the trade name Champaca oil. The tree pro- 
duces conspicuous yellow flowers and the oil is distilled from 
these flowers. In Java, Champaca oil is of a peculiarly de- 
licious fragrance and of greater value even than ylang- 
ylang oil. 

M. longifolia, a closely related species, with white flowers, 
also yields a perfume oil by distillation of the flowers. In 
Manila the flowers of this species yield about 0.2 per cent, of 
oil. Champaca wood oil is obtained from a different tree 
(Bulnesia sarmienti). The oil is distilled, as the term indi- 
cates, from the wood. This oil is solid at ordinary tempera- 
tures and emits an odor of tea and violets. It is quite widely 
used as perfumery. The chief source of the oil is Paraguay. 



GERANIUM OIL 

The perfume oils which are included under the term gera- 
nium oil are derived by distillation of the leaves and stems of 
Pelargonium capitatum and other species of geranium. The 
oil thus obtained is widely used as a substitute for the essence 
of rose and Palmarosa oil. The geranium has been widely cul- 
tivated as a source of oil in southern France and Spain and 
particularly in Algeria, where large plantations are maintained 
for this purpose. The plant is propagated by cuttings, which 
in Algeria are planted in the fall The plants begin to yield 



PERFUMES 261 

during the following year and a plantation persists in yield- 
ing condition for 7 or 8 years. The stems of the geranium 
under these cultivated conditions attain a thickness of i inch. 
The yield varies greatly, according to conditions. It has been 
found that the first cutting of leaves yields about i pound of 
oil per 1,000 pounds of leaves, while the second cutting is 
nearly twice as rich in percentage of oil. The production of 
geranium oil in Algeria is perhaps larger' than that of any 
other country. Algerian oil stands next to French oil in value. 
In Algeria the plants attain a height of 2^ feet and 3 crops 
of leaves are harvested annually. It appears that the oil 
obtained from plants grown on dry hillsides is of superior 
value. 

VETIVER 

A perennial grass known to botanists as Vetivera zisanoides 
and occurring in Mysore, Bengal, and Burma in moist, heavy 
soil along river banks, yields from its roots by distillation the 
vetiver oil which is used as a basis of perfume. The leaves 
of this grass are practically without odor and are used for 
thatching and other purposes. The roots, however, when 
washed and dried in the sun yield by a slow process of distil- 
lation a viscous oil less volatile than the most essential oils. 
It is used in perfumery largely on account of its fixing proper- 
ties, since it thereby prevents other essential oils from vola- 
tilizing too rapidly. 

OTTO OF ROSE 

The familiar perfume known as otto of rose has been here- 
tofore obtained largely from Bulgaria, which country seems 
to be best adapted to the production of high-grade roses 
for this specific purpose. The rose commonly cultivated in 
Bulgaria as a source of perfume is Rosa damascena. R. alba 
has also been grown for the same purpose but it yields an otto 
of quite inferior quality. Outside of Bulgaria otto of rose is 



262 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

produced in other countries of southern Europe and in Persia 
and Asia Minor. Otto of rose is distilled from rose petals. 
The ordinary still used for this purpose has a capacity of 
about 28 gallons. In the long continued experience which 
Bulgaria has had in the production of this perfume it has been 
found that from 2,500 to 2,600 pounds of flowers are required 
to produce i pound of the perfume. Experiments with modern 
steam stills seem to give less satisfactory results than the primi- 
tive stills which have long been in use in Bulgaria. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
OILS 

The oils of vegetable origin are obtained from seeds, nuts, 
and beans, as well as from the leaves, fruit, trunk, and roots 
of various plants. These oils are commonly classified in two 
groups — fixed oils and essential oils. The fixed oils do not 
volatilize or evaporate upon exposure to air. The group of 
fixed oils includes drying oils, semi-drying oils, nondrying oils, 
and vegetable fats. Drying oils are characterized by their 
power to absorb oxygen and dry into an elastic film. They 
are therefore well adapted for utilization in paints and var- 
nishes. Semi-drying oils are intermediate in character be- 
tween drying oils and nondrying oils. They absorb oxygen 
slowly and only to a limited extent. Nondrying oils do not 
solidify on exposure to the air at ordinary temperatures. 
Vegetable fats are solid at ordinary air temperatures, resem- 
bling in this respect butter or tallow. Essential oils, as con- 
trasted with this whole group of fixed oils, are volatile or 
evaporate on exposure to air. They carry the characteristic 
flavor or aroma of the plant from which they are derived. 
Essential oils are obtained chiefly by distillation as contrasted 
with fixed oils which are commonly extracted by pressure or 
chemical solvents. In the preparation of essential oils the 
material in which they are contained is finely ground, placed 
in a copper still, and boiled. In the process of boiling the 
essential oil is carried over into a condenser along with the 
steam. Lemon oil and lime oil may be obtained by pricking 
the skin of the fruit and applying gentle pressure. Distilled 
lemon oil is considered to be of an inferior grade. Essential 

263 



264 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

oils which are used in perfumes or for scenting toilet articles 
are obtained, as already indicated in discussing perfumes, by 
the process of enfleurage. This process consists merely in 
saturating the material with warm fat and dissolving out the 
essential oil by means of alcohol. The United States imports 
essential oils to the value of more than $4,000,000 per year. 
In the following discussion the oils are grouped together ac- 
cording to their physical properties under drying oils, semi- 
drying oils, nondrying oils, vegetable fats, and essential oils. 

DRYING OILS 

Perhaps the most important and most widely used drying 
oil is Chinawood oil, which is obtained from the nuts of a 
number of species of Aleurites. This genus includes at least 
six species of trees, all of which produce oil-bearing nuts. The 
oil obtained from these trees has long been favorably known 
for use in various trades and is destined to become of still 
greater importance. The cultivation of Chinawood oil trees 
is extremely simple. They require only a moderate amount of 
rainfall and appear to thrive in almost any soil. In fact, it 
has been generally observed that these trees may be success- 
fully grown on land which is too rough or otherwise unsuited 
for ordinary agriculture. The trees begin bearing from seed 
within 3 to 5 years. 

In China, there are two distinct species of economic im- 
portance. The wood oil tree (A. montana) grows chiefly in 
the subtropical parts of southeastern China. It appears to 
require a warmer climate and more rainfall than the tung oil 
tree {A. fordii). The wood oil tree in size and habit of growth 
and general appearance resembles the tung oil tree. The 
flowers are smaller and less conspicuous. The amount of oil 
exported from this tree is much less than the export of tung 
oil. The tung oil tree is much more widely distributed than 
the wood oil tree and furnishes at least nine-tenths of the 




Chinawood Oil Nut 



OILS 265 

wood oil used in China and exported from China to other 
countries. This is the tree which, according to all observers, 
recommends itself for general cultivation in other countries. 
It grows rapidly, seldom attains a height of more than 30 
feet, and develops a much branched, rounded head. The 
flowers appear before the leaves and are extremely ornamen- 
tal. The fruit ordinarily ripens in September and October. 
Each nut contains from 2 to 5 seeds. The yield per tree 
varies from i to 5 bushels or more.- Until recently there have 
been no cultivated plantations of this tree in China. At present 
a renewed interest is shown in the planting of this tree. 

In China the oil from both common species of Aleurites 
is used for a great number of pijrposes. In the first place, 
the oil is the chief paint oil of the country and is widely 
employed as a varnish and water-proofing material. For this 
purpose it is not mixed with other materials but is used as 
such for oiling boats, houses, and all kinds of woodwork. The 
oil has been shown to possess great endurance toward the 
action of salt water and toward weathering. From Hankow 
the annual export of tung oil is 15,000 tons or more. Cor- 
responding quantities are exported from Wuchow. 

In Europe and America, tung oil is largely used by paint 
and varnish makers and also by artists. Tung oil dries the 
most quickly of all known vegetable oils. It does not, how- 
ever, produce so clear, transparent, and smooth a film as lin- 
seed oil. The difficulties in the technical use of the oil, 
however, have been largely overcome. At present tung oil is 
largely employed in paint driers as well as in varnishes. 

The related tree (A. cordata), which grows quite widely at 
least in Japan, furnishes an oil commonly known as Japanese 
wood oil which has been used locally in Japan but thus far 
has not entered widely into international commerce. In gen- 
eral appearance this tree resembles A. montana of China. The 
fruit is more nearly 3-lobed, often tapering toward the point, 
and contains 3 to 5 smooth, compressed seeds. 



^66 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

While there are differences in the physical properties of 
oils obtained from these trees, there has been much confusion 
in naming the trees and in properly labeling the oils in the 
past. Commonly, the term Chinawood oil, tung oil, nut oil, 
and various other phrases have been applied indifferently to 
the oil coming from any one of the three already mentioned 
species of Aleurites. These trees are native of China, Japan, 
Tonkin and Annam. They have been introduced, however, into 
Madagascar and the Southern States in this country. It has 
been found that the tung oil tree A. fordii will thrive in Flor- 
ida, South Carolina, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Georgia, 
Texas, and California. It will withstand temperatures in 
winter as low as 14° F. and it has been found to yield in these 
States a satisfactory quantity of nuts which produce an oil 
of good quality. Since the United States imports about 5,000,- 
000 gallons a year of Chinawood oil, it would seem desirable 
to attempt the commercial growing of the wood oil tree on 
some of the cheap and rough lands of the Southern States. 

The seeds of the tung oil tree contain about 53 per cent, of 
oil and yield 40 per cent, of oil by pressure. Cold pressed oil 
is light yellow in color, while hot pressed oil is dark brown. 
The specific gravity of tung oil is 0.94 and the iodin number 
166.7. 

The present world's production of Chinawood oil is about 
30,000 tons a year. It should be remembered that China 
probably uses twice as much oil as is exported from that 
country. The trees are commonly planted 20 feet apart both 
ways and may be expected to bear a profitable yield at 5 years 
of age. In fact, in Florida, some of the trees have begun 
bearing at the age of 2 years. 

Candlenut oil is a well known paint and varnish oil, ob- 
tained from the seeds of A. triloba, also known as A. moluc- 
cana. Candlenut oil has been known by a considerable variety 
of names in the trade, such as country walnut oil, kekune oil, 
artists' oil, Bankul oil, Eboc oil, Spanish walnut oil, Belgaum 



OILS 267 

oil, and in Hawaii as kukui oil. The candlenut tree is generally- 
distributed throughout Polynesia, India, the Philippines, Java, 
Australia, and the Pacific Islands, including Hawaii. It has 
also been introduced into the West Indies, Brazil, Florida, 
and elsewhere. The tree has wide-spreading branches, attains 
a height of 40 to 60 feet and is characterized by large, irregu- 
larly lobed leaves of a pale green color and nuts about 2 inches 
in diameter containing i or 2 seeds. 

Candlenut oil has been used for a variety of purposes. The 
Hawaiians at one time strung the nuts together on sticks and 
used them for lighting their houses. The natural candles 
thus produced gave rise to the name candlenut. Candlenut 
oil is suitable for use in the manufacture of soft soap, in the 
preparation of varnishes, paints, and linoleum, in the manufac- 
ture of oil colors and lacquers, and for other similar purposes. 
The oil dries as quickly as linseed oil and appears to have 
about an equal value. Candlenut oil has been widely used 
in China for oiling paper used in Chinese umbrellas and for 
other purposes. The oil is also a good wood preservative and 
has been used on the hulls of sailing vessels and on buildings. 
For this purpose it has been shown to remain almost intact 
for 15 to 20 years. 

During the decade 1840 to 1850 Hawaii exported about 
10,000 gallons of candlenut oil annually. The industry was 
later allowed to lapse. A company has recently been or- 
ganized in Honolulu to produce candlenut or kukui oil on a 
commercial scale. The study of this oil at the Hawaii Ex- 
periment Station indicated that there are about 15,000 acres 
of candlenut trees in the Territory and that the annual yield 
of nuts is 7 to 8 tons per acre. It was found that one laborer 
could pick up 500 lbs. of nuts per day in an ordinary kukui 
forest. The average oil content of the kernel of the kukui nut 
is 65 per cent. Since the kernel equals 30 per cent, of the 
weight of the nut the oil constitutes 19.5 per cent, of the weight 
of the whole nut, including the shell. About 90 per cent, of 



268 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the total oil content is recoverable by pressure. At this rate 
lOO pounds of nuts will yield 17.5 pounds of oil. These figures 
were later verified in a commercial test on a rather large scale. 

The oil cake left as a residue from the press is a very valu- 
able fertilizer. The material contains 53.75 per cent, protein, 
2.^^ per cent, potash, and 2.79 per cent, phosphoric acid. With- 
out further treatment the press cake cannot be used as a 
cattle feed for the reason that it exercises a poisonous effect. 

The kernel of the candlenut contains an active purgative 
principle and is poisonous as human food. After roasting, 
however, it is used by the Hawaiians as a delicacy in connection 
with their native feasts. Even under such conditions, however, 
it can be eaten only in small quantities. On account of the 
fact that Chinawood oil and candlenut oil, as well as other 
drying oils, are quite commonly mixed in order to get the best 
properties for use in paints and varnishes, it has been thought 
worth while to attempt a natural blend of the physical proper- 
ties of Chinawood oil and candlenut oil through the production 
of hybrids between these trees. In recent hybridization experi- 
ments at the Hawaii Experiment Station, about 120 nuts were 
obtained by cross-pollination between the Chinawood oil and 
candlenut oil trees. These nuts will be planted in order to 
determine whether the oil produced from the hybrid trees has 
any advantage over either of the parent trees. 

Perilla oil, obtained from P. ocymoides, and native of East 
Indies, China, and Japan, constitutes about 35 per cent, of the 
seed of that plant. Seeds are sown in April and the plant 
ripens another crop of seed in October. Perilla oil dries more 
slowly than linseed oil. In Japan, the oil is commonly mixed 
with cheap lacquer. Perilla oil has also been used in ex- 
tracting Japan wax, and as an edible oil, particularly in Man- 
churia. 

Stillingia oil is obtained from the seeds of a tree S. sebifera, 
which occurs wild in Formosa and is quite largely cultivated in 
China. The pulp surrounding the seeds yields Chinese vege- 



OILS 269 

table tallow. The seeds contain 20 per cent, of a good drying 
oil which absorbs 12 per cent, of oxygen within 8 days. The 
oil is used for lighting purposes in Qiina and is not exported 
except in small quantities. 

Hemp-seed oil is obtained by pressure from the seed of the 
common hemp (Cannabis satwa). Hemp is grown for this 
purpose in Algeria, India, and Formosa, as well as in parts 
of Europe and the United States. Seeds contain 30 per cent. 
of oil. Hemp-seed oil is light green or greenish-yellow in 
color. It is chiefly used as a paint or varnish oil but also in 
making green soft soaps. As a drying oil it possesses fair 
quality. Large quantities of hemp-seed oil are produced in 
Europe and still larger quantities are imported from China. 

Gynocardia oil is derived from the seed of a large tree 
(G. odorata), native of Assam and Sikkim. The seeds yield 
about 19 per cent, of a good quality of drying oil. For many 
years the seeds of this tree were also supposed to be the source 
of Chaulmoogra oil, but this oil is now known to be derived 
from another source. 

Safflower oil is obtained from the seed of the safflower 
(Carthamus tinctorius). The safflower is still quite generally 
cultivated in India, Egypt, Caucasus, and Turkestan. Saf- 
flower seeds yield 17 per cent, of oil by pressure. The actual 
percentage of oil which can be extracted by gasoline is about 
28. Safflower oil is used for culinary purposes in India and 
also for paint and soap manufacture and in the preservation of 
leather and ropes. It has been found that safflower oil boiled 
slowly for 4 hours makes an excellent waterproofing material. 
In the Bombay Presidency, safflower is the most important 
oil-seed crop. The area devoted to the plant has been some- 
what restricted since the flowers are no longer used so much 
as a source of dye. The oil obtained by cold pressure is pale 
yellow. It has a good drying quality but cannot entirely re- 
place linseed oil. The area planted to safflower in the Bombay 
Presidency is about 600,000 acres. Quite extensive plantings 



270 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

are also being established in Egypt, Nyasaland, and other 
tropical countries. 

Poppy seed oil, as the name indicates, is derived from the 
seed of the poppy (Papaver somniferum) . This industry is 
most largely developed in Egypt, south Russia, India, and 
Persia. The seeds yield about 45 per cent, of oil. The largest 
poppy seed oil mills are located in Marseilles, France. The 
oil is white if expressed cold, but red and of less value if 
expressed at higher temperatures. Poppy seed oil is used 
chiefly as a salad oil (sometimes mixed with sesame oil) and 
also as a fine artist's oil. France imports 60,000,000 pounds 
of poppy seed annually for oil purposes. 

Manihot oil is obtained from the seeds of the Ceara rubber 
tree (M. glaziovii). The seeds yield 10 per cent, of an oil 
which is yellowish-green in color, of a bitter flavor, and of the 
odor of olive oil. The oil dries in about a week and may be 
used as a substitute for linseed oil. 

Niger seed oil is derived from the seed of Guizotia oleifera, 
a plant native to Abyssinia and also grown in the East Indies, 
West Indies, and west Africa. The seeds contain 40 per 
cent, of oil of a yellow color and nutty flavor. It is used 
chiefly as an edible oil but the poorer grades are employed in 
the manufacture of soap and for this purpose mixed with 
rape-seed oil. 

Para seed oil is obtained by pressure from the seeds of the 
Para rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis). These seeds contain 25 
to 40 per cent, of oil. The oil is of a yellow color and dries 
into a clear film. The industry may assume considerable pro- 
portions when the active demand for seed for planting pur- 
poses ceases. The oil dries less rapidly than linseed oil and 
is considered inferior to linseed oil for industrial purposes. 
The seed cake obtained as a residue from the oil press has 
been used as a cattle food in Europe, India, and Ceylon. For 
this purpose the cake appears to have considerable value. 

Argemone oil is derived from the seeds of the Mexican 



OILS 271 

poppy (A. mexicana). This plant is quite widely grown in 
the East Indies, where the oil. from the seed is used as a salad 
oil and also for illuminating and lubricating purposes. In the 
West Indies and Mexico it is used chiefly for the latter pur- 
pose. The seeds yield about 35 per cent, of oil of an orange 
color. The oil possesses an acrid flavor which apparently gives 
it some value as a preventive against white ants and borers 
in addition to its value as a paint oil and wood preservative. 



SEMI-DRYING OILS 

Cottonseed is one of the most important of the world's oil- 
bearing seeds. The cultural systems used in growing cotton, 
however, as well as the technical methods employed in the 
preparation of cottonseed oil are so familiar to the American 
reader and have been the subject of so many books and bul- 
letins that it seems unnecessary to discuss the matter in this 
connection to an extent commensurate with the commercial 
importance of the product. Cottonseed oil is used largely 
in compound lards and butter substitutes, while the lower 
grades are employed in soap making and in adulterating paint 
oils and for numerous other purposes. The oil is not satis- 
factory as a lubricant. Cottonseed contains about 20 per cent, 
of oil and about 13 per cent, of oil remains in the cottonseed 
meal which is the chief by-product of cottonseed oil mills. 
These figures indicate sufficiently the yield of oil obtained by 
pressure. About 35 gallons of oil are secured from each ton 
of seed. Cottonseed oil is held in the other material which 
constitutes the seed much more firmly than is the case with 
many other oil seeds. A significant comparison may be had 
by considering the absolute content of oil and the percentage 
of oil recovered under commercial conditions in the case of 
cottonseed and the kukui nut. As just indicated, the original 
cottonseed contains 20 per cent, of oil and the press cake 13 
per cent, of oil. In sharp contrast with these figures we have 



272 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the candlenut, which contains 65 per cent, of oil, while the 
press cake contains only 5 to 8 per cent, of oil. 

The color of cottonseed oil is lighter from fresh seed than 
from old seed. In the commercial manufacture of cottonseed 
oil, the seed are delinted, decorticated, crushed, and pressed 
either cold or hot, according to the purpose for which the 
oil is to be used. The great extent of the industry in this 
country is indicated by the fact that the United States exports 
35,000,000 gallons of cottonseed oil annually in addition to 
the large amount consumed at home. 

Cottonseed meal or the ground press cake which remains 
after the oil has been pressed has long been an important 
stock feed. Its greatest and most effective use has been found 
in feeding dairy cows and in fattening steers. As a feed for 
chickens, pigs, and sheep, it has been less extensively used. 
It has long been known that cottonseed meal, when fed con- 
tinuously in large rations, exercises a poisonous effect on pigs. 
Much attention has been given to the study of this matter 
and several theories have been proposed as to the cause of 
the toxicity of cottonseed meal. It was once suspected that 
the toxic action of the meal was due to the presence of pyro- 
phosphoric acid under certain conditions. This theory, how- 
ever, was later discredited. In practice it has been found 
that if fed in small rations in combination with certain mineral 
salts and an abundance of green feed the danger from poison- 
ing is largely eliminated. Recently the North Carolina Ex- 
periment Station has isolated from cottonseed an active 
principle known as gossypol. It was shown that this substance 
has a pronounced toxic effect and that the toxicity of the meal 
could be overcome by subjecting the meal to any process 
which would oxidize the gossypol. 

Soy bean oil is becoming a more and more important com- 
mercial product. The soy bean (Glycine hispida) is a familiar 
legume, native of China, Indo-China, and Japan and now 
cultivated throughout the world except in extremely cold cli- 



OILS 273 

mates. The most extensive plantings of soy beans are in 
Japan, Korea, and Manchuria, but recently the plant has as- 
sumed much greater importance in various tropical countries. 
Soy beans contain from 15 to 2.2. per cent, of oil and yield 
10 to 13 per cent, of oil by the ordinary commercial methods 
of extraction. The oil is used in the Orient for food and light. 
It is imported into the United States largely for use in soap 
manufacture. The soy bean industry has assumed enormous 
proportions in China and Japan on account of the oil, meal 
cake, and soya sauce and other products. There are more 
than 12,000 soya sauce factories in Japan alone and the soya 
sauce factory follows the Japanese wherever they go. About 
one-tenth of the arable land of Japan is devoted to the cultiva- 
tion of soy beans. There are a great many varieties of soy 
beans producing black, brown, yellow, mottled, and green seeds 
and varying greatly in oil content. 

. In the Orient, soy bean oil is largely used for human food 
and has become an extremely important food product. It is 
also employed in China for illuminating purposes and as a 
substitute for linseed oil in paints. The use of soy bean oil 
in manufacturing soap and as a machine lubricant is also 
important. Recently the oil has entered quite widely into the 
manufacture of margarine. 

Soy bean meal, or the ground cake obtained as a residue 
from the oil factories, is well known to be an extremely valu- 
able cattle food. Near the centers of production it is much 
cheaper than cottonseed meal. A few cases have occurred 
where poisonous effects were apparently produced from exces- 
sive feeding with soy bean meal but the matter still remains 
somewhat uncertain. In Japan, a number of other products 
are prepared from soy beans. A product known as soy-bean 
milk is made by soaking beans in water for 12 hours and 
then pressing them between mill stones, after which the pow- 
der is boiled with three times its bulk in water and filtered 
through cloth. The product resembles milk in appearance 



£74 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

and is considered a valuable source of nourishment for chil- 
dren. The milk may be further treated with magnesium 
chlorid to precipitate the proteids, which are then collected 
by filtration, pressed, and dried into a product known as soy 
bean cheese. Soya sauce or shoyu sauce is a much more 
important product of the soy bean. This material is prepared 
from a mixture of boiled and pulverized soy beans, and 
roasted, pulverized wheat with salt and water. The whole 
mass is fermented with rice wine ferment in large vats for 
from I to 5 years, being stirred at frequent intervals. The 
product is a dark brown or almost black sauce, resembling 
beef extract in appearance but of a more pungent quality. 
Soya sauce is widely used in this form by the Japanese and 
serves also as the basis for Worcestershire sauce and other 
meat sauces used in Europe and America. The moist cake 
residue obtained in the manufacture of soya sauce is of very 
different composition from the soy-bean meal derived from 
oil factories. The residue which comes from the soy factories 
contains 15 per cent, moisture, 24.5 per cent, ash (nearly all 
of which is common salt), 17.25 per cent, protein, 18 per cent, 
fat, and 24 per cent, carbohydrates. This material may be 
used as a stock feed after washing out the salt in water. The 
soy bean crop matures in from 85 to 130 days after seeding 
and the yield varies from 25 to 40 bushels of beans per acre. 
Kapok oil is obtained from the seeds of kapok (Eriodendron 
anfractuosum) , a tree native to the East Indies, West Indies, 
Malaya, Central America, and Africa. The hull of the kapok 
seed is easily removed from the kernel. The seed yield about 
18 per cent, of oil of a greenish-yellow color and agreeable 
flavor. This oil is used in the Tropics for food purposes. 
Large quantities of the seed are imported into Holland, where 
the oil is expressed for use in soap and as a substitute for 
cottonseed oil. If the seed is not thoroughly decorticated be- 
fore grinding and pressing, the oil has a reddish color. Its 
properties are very similar to those of cottonseed oil. 



OILS 275 

Sesame oil, also called gingelly oil and by other names, is 
obtained from the seed of Sesamum indicum. The crop is 
cultivated chiefly in India, Java, Siam, China, Japan, and the 
Levant. Sesame is an annual plant attaining a height of 2 or 

3 feet. The seed are sown broadcast and the crop matures in 

4 months from the time of seeding. The yield is commonly 
about 20 bushels of seed per acre, from which 60 gallons of 
oil are obtained. The seed contains from 50 to 57 per cent. 
of oil. 

Marseilles is the great mill town for sesame seed, importing 
about 100,000,000 pounds of seed annually. Sesame press 
cake is widely and favorably known as a cattle feed. The oil 
is extensively used as human food and for anointing the body 
in India, while in Europe it serves widely as a salad oil and 
for use in the manufacture of soap. A particularly fine 
quality of seed for oil purposes comes from Palestine. 

Sesame seed are dried, ground, and pressed for i)4 hours. 
The yield by commercial methods is 32 to 35 per cent, of oil 
under the system of cold pressure. After this first extraction 

5 per cent, of water is added and the mass is again pressed 
at a temperature of 50° C. A third appHcation of pressure 
is then made, yielding about 10 per cent, of oil additional to 
that obtained from the first two pressures. The oil secured 
by the first pressure is not of strong flavor and is clear, that 
obtained from the second and third pressure is darker, of a 
decided flavor, and with a tendency to become acid. 

The best grade of sesame oil is used as a substitute for olive 
oil in salads and in medicine and also in margarine and vege- 
table butters. For this purpose northern Europe imports 
32,000 tons of sesame seed annually. Sesame cake contains 
5 to 13 per cent, of fat and 24 to 40 per cent, of protein. The 
cake is much used as a cattle feed in rations of 2 to 4 pounds 
per day. 

Sesame oil is one of the important vegetable oils of India. 
The oil obtained from the first press keeps for a long time 



276 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

without becoming rancid. The area devoted to sesame in 
India is about 4,500,000 acres and the annual yield is approxi- 
mately 200,000 tons. 

Rape-seed oil is imported into Europe in greatest quanti- 
ties from Bombay. The seed contains from 33 to 40 per cent. 
of oil. The cold pressed oil is used for eating purposes in 
India and Europe. In the United States, rape-seed oil is 
much used as a "bread oil" to grease the ends of the loaves 
of bread. Rape-seed oil, extracted by chemicals, is used for 
illuminating and lubricating purposes as well as the manufac- 
ture of soap. Europe imports 280,000,000 pounds of rape 
seed annually from India. The area devoted to the produc- 
tion of rape in India is about 3,500,000 acres. 

NONDRYING OILS 

Olive oil is produced chiefly in the Mediterranean countries, 
Syria, California, South Africa, and Austraha. The pulp of 
the fruit yields 10 to 50 per cent, of oil according to variety 
and locality. The yield per acre varies from 500 to 2,000 gal- 
lons of oil. The largest yield of oil is obtained from com- 
pletely ripe fruit, but the highest grade of oil comes from fruit 
which is not fully ripe. In ordinary practice the fruit is 
crushed entire, but a better quality of oil is obtained from the 
pulp or marc alone, in which case the oil is marketed under the 
name of olive kernel oil. 

In California the percentage of oil in olives is comparatively 
low. It has been found that the fruit should be pressed as 
soon as possible after picking, but methods have been devised 
for holding the fruit a long time without deterioration. The 
first expression from the fresh olive pulp yields "Provence oil," 
"Nice oil," "Riviera oils," and other high grades of olive oil. 
After the first expression water is added to the pulp and pres- 
sure again applied. From the second expression, salad oil or 
common table oil of second grade is obtained. The pulp is 



OILS 277 

then removed from the press, mixed with hot water, and 
pressed a third time, yielding an oil for lubricating or soap- 
making purposes. The stearin and other material is allowed 
to settle out, after which the oil is decanted from the top and 
filtered to render it clear. Large quantities of olive oil are 
used for table purposes. The United States alone imports 
nearly 7,000,000 gallons of olive oil annually in addition to the 
considerable quantities produced in California. Low grades 
of the oil are used in textile soaps, in calico printing, in me- 
dicinal soaps, and for various other purposes. 

Castor oil is derived from the familiar castor bean (Ricinus 
communis), a plant native to Africa, but now cultivated every- 
where in the Tropics and subtropics. The castor bean has been 
grown for the bean as far north as Kentucky in the United 
States and as an ornamental even in Canada. The plant is cul- 
tivated chiefly as an annual, but in the Tropics some varieties 
reach a height of 40 feet as a perennial. There are many 
varieties of castor bean, differing in color and marking of the 
seed and in habit of growth. 

The chief sources of castor bean are India, Java, Persia, 
China, Japan, Mediterranean countries, Mexico, and the 
United States. The yield of beans varies from 12 to 30 bushels 
per acre. The United States imports 900,000 bushels of castor 
beans annually, while India exports 3,000,000 bushels of beans 
and 2,000,000 gallons of castor oil per year. 

The castor bean yields from 25 to 40 per cent, of oil by pres- 
sure. The bean also contains a poisonous alkaloid known as 
ricin. Ricin does not pass into the oil if pressed cold. The 
first cold expression yields a medicinal oil of high grade. Sub- 
sequent expressions yield low-grade oils used for lubricating 
and manufacturing purposes. Low-grade or damaged castor 
beans are commonly treated directly with chemical solvents for 
the complete extraction of the oil to be used for manufactur- 
ing purposes. 

Iij Oklahoma, castor beans are planted 15 to 18 inches 



278 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

apart in rows 4 feet apart, but in tropical countries the plant- 
ing distance is 5 or 6 feet both ways. The castor oil industry 
in India is a very important one. The oil is highly valued 
for use in lubricating machinery, for dressing hides and skins, 
for illuminating purposes, in the manufacture of soap and can- 
dles, and as a medicine. Cold pressed oil gives a more brilliant 
light than oil obtained from boiled or roasted beans. The press 
cake obtained from castor oil mills is widely used as a fertilizer 
for rice, potatoes, and sugar cane. In India the beans are 
picked from the seventh to ninth month after planting. The 
yield ranges from 500 to 900 pounds of beans per acre. 

Peanuts are grown as a commercial crop chiefly in the East 
Indies, Java, Mozambique, United States, Togo, southern Ni- 
geria and the West Indies. Senegal exports 200,000,000 pounds 
of peanuts annually to Europe. In the commercial preparation 
of peanut oil it has been found that the first cold expression 
yields the best oil. This oil is used as a salad oil. A second 
grade of peanut oil is also used for salad purposes, being sold 
at a lower price. The third grade of oil is employed largely in 
the manufacture of soap. High-grade peanut oil is quite widely 
used as an adulterant of olive oil and in preserving sardines 
and for other culinary purposes. Peanuts yield 32 per cent, of 
oil by the ordinary commercial methods. The oil cake which is 
thus obtained as a residue contains 8 to 9 per cent, of oil and is 
an excellent cattle feed. The chief tropical producing countries 
export nearly 700,000 tons of peanuts annually for use as a 
source of oil. 

Rice oil, obtained from rice bran and meal, has come to be 
a commercial product of considerable importance. Unmilled 
rice contains 2 or 3 per cent, of oil. Most of this oil is located 
in the outer portion of the grain and is therefore removed in 
milling. In the rice mills of Rangoon it has been found that 
the bran contains as high as 20 per cent, of oil. Rice oil com- 
monly shows a rather high acidity. It is extracted by com- 
tnercial solvents and is chiefly used in the manufacture of soap. 



OILS 279 

The almond oil of commerce is chiefly expressed from bitter 
almonds in the Mediterranean countries and Persia. The 
seeds yield from 20 to 45 per cent, of oil. In trade the oil is 
much adulterated with oil from peach or apricot kernels. Al- 
mond oil is used almost exclusively for pharmaceutical pur- 
poses. By distilling the seeds an essential oil of bitter almonds 
is obtained for use in perfumery, confectionery, and medicine. 

Tea oil is obtained chiefly from the seeds of Camellia cleifera 
and other species of this genus, including the commercial tea 
plant. The production of tea seeds for oil is confined largely to 
China, Tonkin, Assam, and Japan. For this purpose the seeds 
are gathered in the fall. The seeds yield 15 per cent, of oil 
by pressure. This oil is sometimes used as a food oil in China, 
but in Japan it is employed chiefly as an expensive hair oil 
and for lubricating delicate machinery. Tea oil is light yellow 
in color, closely resembling olive oil in its general character, 
but possessing a somewhat acrid taste. It serves fairly well 
as an illuminating oil and gives excellent results in the manu- 
facture of hard white soap. The press cake obtained as a resi- 
due in the manufacture of tea oil is poisonous and therefore 
of no value as a cattle feed. Its fertilizing value is also rather 
low. 

Ben oil is obtained from the seeds of Moringa pterygos- 
perma, a tree native to India, Syria, Arabia, Nigeria, Jamaica, 
and other countries. The seeds of this tree yield about 36 per 
cent, of oil. Ben oil is composed of 60 per cent, liquid oil and 
40 per cent, white solid fat. The oil has a yellowish color. It 
is used in the Orient as a cosmetic oil and also in the enfleurage 
process of extracting perfumes from flowers. 

Sterculia oil is derived from the seed of a moderate-sized 
tree (.S'. fcrtida), native to the East Indies, Indo-China, and 
Malaya. The seeds of this tree yield 30 per cent, of oil, which 
is commonly used in Java and other Oriental countries as a 
cooking oil and for illuminating purposes. 

Canari oil is obtained from the pili nut tree (Carnarium 



280 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

commune), indigenous to Malabar and the Molucca Islands, 
and cultivated also in various other parts of the Tropics. The 
nuts of this tree yield 56 per cent, of oil by pressure. The oil 
is of a yellow color and very agreeable flavor. It is used exclu- 
sively as a food oil. 

VEGETABLE FATS 

The most important of the oils which come under this group 
is palm oil, obtained from the nuts of Elceis guineensis, native 
of west Africa, where it occurs in enormous areas. The oil 
palm is also cultivated in various tropical regions, particularly 
in Nigeria. It is a handsome tree 40 to 60 feet high, with large, 
graceful, pinnate leaves. The oil palm begins bearing at the 
age of 5 or 6 years and comes into full bearing at 15 years 
of age, after which it continues its productive life for 60 to 70 
years. Each tree bears about 10 bunches of 200 nuts each per 
year. About 7o,cxx) tons of palm oil and 175,000 tons of ker- 
nels are annually exported from west Africa. The United 
States imports 25,000 tons of palm oil per year. 

The bunches of ripe nuts are cut off with a machete and 
allowed to fall to the ground. The fruit pulp yields a yellow- 
ish oil which is widely used in the soap and candle industries. 
The kernels yield a white fat which is much employed as a 
vegetable butter. The kernel oil is obtained by hydraulic pres- 
sure in the oil mills of Europe. A high-grade pulp oil is se- 
cured by the natives through the use of hand presses and a 
low-grade oil by boiling. The yield averages about i to 3 gal- 
lons of oil per tree annually. This yield could be much in- 
creased by improvement in the methods of handling the nuts. 
The present native methods are very wasteful. It has been 
estimated that these careless methods cause an unnecessary 
loss of about one-third the possible oil yield. 

From I ton of the palm kernels 900 pounds of oil are ob- 
tained. This oil is a white, solid mass at ordinary tempera- 
tures. It is used in the manufacture of soap and candles and 



OILS 281 

in constantly increasing amounts in margarine and cooking 
fats. About 35,000 tons of the kernel oil are used annually 
in northern Europe in the manufacture of margarine. Palm 
kernel cake contains 6 per cent, fat and 18 per cent, protein. 
This product is widely and favorably known as a cattle feed, 
being used for this purpose not only by the natives but also 
in Europe, where the material is shipped in large quantities. 

Cocoa butter constitutes about 50 to 55 per cent, by weight 
of the cacao beans. It is obtained as a by-product in the man- 
ufacture of cocoa as indicated in the discussion of cocoa under 
Beverages. Cocoa butter is yellowish when fresh but turns 
white with age. It possesses a chocolate flavor and is very 
firm at ordinary temperatures. Cocoa butter is used in phar- 
macy, confectionery, and in the preparation of perfumes. 
Large quantities of the material are ordinarily to be had for 
this purpose. 

Chinese vegetable tallow is a firm fat which occurs as a coat- 
ing on the seeds of Stillingia sehifera, a tree native to China 
and Indo-China. Each fruit of this tree has 3 seeds. The tree 
begins bearing at 5 years of age and produces 50 pounds of 
seeds per tree per year or about 15 pounds of fat. Hankow 
is the center of production, which amounts to 10,000 tons a 
year. About 5,000 tons of the material are sent to Europe and 
the United States. It is extensively used in China and else- 
where in the manufacture of candles. The seed kernels yield 
Stillingia oil, which is discussed elsewhere in this chapter. 

Chaulmoogra oil is a vegetable fat obtained by expression 
from the seeds of the tree Taraktogenos kursii, native to 
Burma and Assam. Under pressure the seeds yield a yellow- 
ish oil possessing the consistency of butter. The oil is much 
used in the Orient and in Europe in treating skin diseases, and 
is sometimes used internally in the treatment of tuberculosis. 
In the Orient, Chaulmoogra oil has been much used in treat- 
ing the superficial lesions of leprosy. 

Hydnocarpus oil is a yellowish, semi-solid vegetable fat ob- 



282 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

tained from the seeds of {H. wightiana), a tree native to 
India. Under pressure the seeds yield 32 per cent, of the oil, 
which is used as a substitute for Chaulmoogra oil. The seeds 
of H. anthelmintica also yield by pressure about 16 per cent, 
of an oil called lukrabo oil, which is similar in odor and con- 
sistency to Chaulmoogra oil. 

Pongam oil is derived from the beans produced by Pon- 
gamia glabra, a tree native to India, Ceylon, and Malacca. The 
beans yield by pressure about 25 per cent, of yellow oil, which 
is much used in medicine and for illuminating purposes in 
India. 

Carapa oil is produced by the seeds of C guianensis, a hand- 
some tree native to French Guiana. This tree reaches a height 
of 75 feet and bears pinnate leaves. The natives obtain the 
oil by boiling the seeds in water and allowing the oil to drain 
from the mass. The seeds yield about 40 per cent, of oil by 
pressure. This oil is employed by the natives in Guiana, Bra- 
zil, etc., as an ointment to protect the skin against the attacks 
of insects. 

Shea butter is a vegetable fat obtained from the nuts of 
Butyrospermum parkii, a tree native to the west coast of 
Africa and the Sudan. The tree grows to a height of 40 feet 
or more. The nuts are pounded and boiled in water, after 
which the fat is skimmed off. The oil has found quite a wide 
use in the manufacture of soap and candles. 

Nutmeg butter is derived from the nutmeg kernel by pres- 
sure. Only a small part of the 1,500 tons of nutmegs an- 
nually produced in the world is used as a source of nutmeg 
butter. The seeds yield 40 per cent, of fat of a yellow color, 
nutmeg flavor, and of the consistency of tallow. Most of the 
nutmegs of Europe come from the Banda Islands. Mace but- 
ter is made both from the mace of the commercial species of 
nutmeg and also from Myristica argentea, a tree of common 
occurrence in New Guinea. Nutmeg butter is largely used in 
medicine in the preparation of ointments. 



OILS 283 

Kokune butter, also called mangosteen oil, is obtained from 
the seeds of the mangosteen which yield about 20 per cent, of 
fat of a white color and not unpleasant flavor. Kokune butter 
is prepared especially on the west coast of India where it is 
widely used as a food fat. 

Cohune oil is obtained from nuts of the palm Attalea co- 
hune, native to Central America, especially Mexico, British 
Honduras, and Guatemala. The nuts are about the size of 
nutmegs and contain 40 per cent, of the firm yellow fat. The 
nuts offer much difficulty in grinding, and suitable machinery 
for crushing them has not yet been devised. The cohune 
palm is estimated to occupy nearly 2,000,000 acres in British 
Honduras, or approximately two-fifths of the total area of the 
colony. The nuts are borne in large bunches and the yield of 
each tree is 1,000 to 2,000 nuts per year, or about 200 pounds 
of nuts. The kernels of the nuts are about i inch in diameter. 
Occasionally, however, they attain a greater size. The fat 
obtained from the kernels is solid white, of a crystalline struc- 
ture, and resembles coconut oil in appearance and smell. The 
kernels yield about 65 per cent, by weight of fat. 

Coconut oil has long been one of the most important of the 
vegetable fats, and its importance is increasing constantly with 
the improvement in methods of refining and purifying It. This 
oil is discussed in the chapter on coconuts. 

Japan wax is derived from the berries of Rhus succedanea, 
a sumac bush native of Japan, China, and Tonkin. By pres- 
sure the berries yield 20 per cent, of a greenish wax. 

The most important refineries for this material are located in 
Kobi and Osaka. The total production of Japan wax is about 
2,400 tons annually, and of this quantity about 250 tons are 
exported to Europe and America. 

Mowra fat is produced by Bassia latifolia and B. longifolia 
which are native nut-bearing trees in India. For the most 
part the nuts are collected from wild trees but the cultivation 
of these trees is increasing in recent years. Mowra fat is 



284 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

widely used in India and is also exported to the extent of 
66,000,000 pounds annually. The oil content of the nut ker- 
nels is 55 to 65 per cent. Mowra fat is soft and yellow. It 
is used in India as a cooking fat particularly for mixing with 
ghi, or clarified butter, and for tallow. In Europe, mowra fat 
is employed in the manufacture of margarine and also as a 
chocolate fat. In soap-making, mowra fat is of equal value 
with palm oil. Mowra cake contains a poisonous saponin and 
is therefore not suitable for use as a cattle feed. The ma- 
terial, however, makes a good fertilizer, containing 17 per 
cent, protein and 7.5 per cent, ash. 

The same material is obtained from Mauritius under the 
name illipe oil. In Mauritius it appears that 100 kilograms of 
shelled nuts are required to yield 16.5 liters of pure oil. While 
this oil is used in considerable quantities in India as a cooking 
oil, it seems not likely to assume any importance in that re- 
gard in Europe or America. 

ESSENTIAL OILS 

Citronella grass oil is obtained by distillation from the leaves 
of the grass Andropogon nardus which is cultivated espe- 
cially in Ceylon and Java. In Ceylon about 40,000 acres are 
devoted to the production of this crop. Two cuttings a year 
are obtained and the yield of oil per acre is 40 pounds per 
year. The oil is used chiefly in perfuming toilet soaps of the 
cheaper quality. There appear to be several grades of this 
oil in Ceylon and apparently two or more varieties of citro- 
nella grass are used as a source of the oil. A planting of 
citronella grass persists for 15 years or more before the 
plants become exhausted. 

Lemon grass oil is obtained from the leaves of a closely 
related grass, A. citratus, native to India and Ceylon. The 
yield obtained from this grass averages 20 pounds of oil per 
acre with a value of about $500. The oil is used in scenting 



OILS 285 

fine toilet soaps and for various other purposes. Lemon grass 
oil is also called verbena oil. Several other species of An- 
dropogon yield oils which have been used for similar pur- 
poses. This is particularly true of A. muricatus, A. odoratus, 
A. laniger, and A. martini. From the latter species Palma- 
rosa oil or Indian geranium oil is derived. The United States 
imports about 890,000 pounds of citronella and lemon grass 
oils annually. Recently the cultivation of lemon grass for the 
production of oil has reached large proportions in Uganda. 
The oil obtained from Uganda, however, is thus far inferior 
to the East Indian product. 

Eucalyptus oil is derived chiefly from E. globulus and E. 
citriodora. These trees are native to Australia but are now 
widely cultivated throughout the Tropics and subtropics, in- 
cluding California and the Southern States. Oil has been 
produced from more than 100 species of eucalyptus and the 
oil from these different sources has been found upon ex- 
amination to differ somewhat according to the species from 
which it is derived. Blue gum {E. glohidus) is, however, the 
chief commercial source of eucalyptus oil and is taken as a 
standard. The fresh leaves from this tree yield about i per 
cent, of oil which is rich in eucalyptol, the active medicinal 
principle of the oil. Eucalyptus oil is widely used for med- 
ical purposes, especially as a nasal oil spray. The oil from 
certain other species of eucalyptus has been used to some ex- 
tent in scenting soaps and other toilet articles. This is par- 
ticularly true of E. citriodora, the leaves of which yield a pale 
yellow oil with the strong odor characteristic of citronella 
grass. Eucalyptus oil is in all cases obtained by distillation 
of the leaves. 

Sandalwood oil is derived from the wood of Santalum album, 
the true sandalwood tree, native of India, especially in My- 
sore, Coimbatore, and Malabar. Upon distillation the wood 
yellow color and of a thick molasses-like consistency. It is 
yields 1.5 to 6 per cent, of oil. Sandalwood oil is of a pale 



286 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

used in medicine and perfumery, especially in the Orient. 
Sandalwood oil is also obtained from various other species 
of Santalum, including 6". freycinetianum, S. pyrularium, and 
S. haleakalcB of Hawaii, and also from S. cygnorum and S. 
preissianum of Australia. In Mysore, sandalwood planta- 
tions belong to the government. Large quantities of wood 
are shipped from that region to Europe where the wood is 
used chiefly for distillation to obtain sandalwood oil. 

The trade in sandalwood was at one time an important in- 
dustry in Hawaii. This material was largely shipped to the 
Orient where it was used in the preparation of chests and 
fancy boxes, and also for the preparation of the oil and its 
subsequent use in perfumes. The tree has been practically 
exterminated in Hawaii as a result of the indiscriminate meth- 
ods of harvesting. 

Cinnamon oil, as the name indicates, is obtained from the 
chips or waste and broken pieces of cinnamon. Large quan- 
tities of this waste material accumulate during the preparation 
of the cinnamon quills. Cinnamon oil has been much adul- 
terated with the essential oil of the cinnamon leaves. Cassia 
oil is derived from cassia bark and is of a much ranker odor 
and of a correspondingly lower value. The cultivation of the 
cassia tree as a source of oil is carried on chiefly in southern 
China. The oil is obtained principally from the leaves. A 
similar oil is derived from the bark, flowers, and twigs, but 
the process of distillation of the leaves is cheaper. Cassia 
oil has been found to be much adulterated with resin. The 
true cinnamon chips yield ^ to i per cent, of oil. This oil is 
extensively used in perfumery and in medicine. The United 
States imports 125,000 pounds of cassia and cinnamon oils 
annually. 

Gurjun balsam oil is derived from a balsam which exudes 
from the stem of a tall tree (Dipterocarpus turbinatus) , native 
of India. This balsam is quite largely used to adulterate co- 
paiba balsam. 



OILS 287 

Lemon oil is obtained from the rind of the lemon. The oil 
is produced in small quantities in nearly all tropical and sub- 
tropical countries, but chiefly near Messina, Sicily. The 
United States imports about 450,000 pounds annually. Lemon 
oil is also produced in other Mediterranean countries. New 
South Wales, Jamaica, Florida, and California. Several 
methods have been developed for obtaining the oil, but the 
method chiefly used in Sicily consists of pricking the rind 
with a needle brush and catching the oil with a sponge by 
hand pressure on the rind. Lemon oil is chiefly used as a 
flavoring material. 

Orange oil is derived mostly from the sweet and sour orange 
rind, particularly in Sicily and Italy. The oil is expressed by 
the method just mentioned in connection with lemon oil. 
Orange oil is used in scenting soaps and toilet waters and in 
perfumes. The United States imports 80,000 pounds an- 
nually. 

Lime oil is produced in Italy from the rind of the lime in 
the same manner as lemon oil. In the West Indies the Hme 
oil is obtained as a by-product by distillation in concentrating 
lime juice. 

Oil of cloves is derived from the familiar spice Eugenia 
caryophyllata, native of the Molucca Islands, where it is still 
most widely cultivated as a spice. Clove oil is now produced 
chiefly in Zanzibar and the Pemba Islands. The oil is ob- 
tained by distillation of the cloves or dried unexpanded flower 
buds. Cloves yield 15 per cent, of clove oil by the process 
of distillation. The oil is clear at first but soon becomes yel- 
lowish in color. It has a high specific gravity, being heavier 
than water. Clove oil is used in medicine, as an antiseptic, 
in microscopy and in flavoring. 

Ginger oil is obtained chiefly from the West Indies and 
East Indies. The oil is distilled from the roots of Jamaica 
ginger. These roots or rhizomes yield about 2 or 3 per cent, 
oil of a yellow color which is chiefly used in flavoring liqueurs. 



288 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Cardamom oil is now obtained principally from India and 
Ceylon. The oil is distilled from the commercial cardamom 
seeds. The Ceylon seeds yield 3 to 6 per cent, of oil. The 
chief use of cardamom oil is for flavoring purposes. 

Oil of cubebs is obtained mostly from Java. The dried cu- 
beb fruits yield lo to 15 per cent, of a greenish oil by the 
process of distillation. Cubeb oil is used in medicine and 
in flavoring liqueurs. 

Camphor oil really belongs in the same series with camphor, 
the oil being the liquid portion and camphor the solid por- 
tion of the product of distillation of camphor wood and leaves. 
The oil is separated from the camphor by pressure or draining. 

Cascarilla oil is derived by distillation from the bark of 
Croton eleutheria, a shrub native to the Bahamas. The bark 
of this shrub yields I to 3 per cent, of an oil which is very 
aromatic and is used in fumigating pastilles. 

Patchouli oil comes largely from Penang, Malacca, Java and 
Mauritius. It is obtained by distillation from the leaves of 
a perennial herb (Pogosfemon patchouli) belonging to the 
mint family. This herb grows to a height of about 2 feet. 
The dried leaves yield by distillation 2 to 4 per cent, of oil, 
which is chiefly used in scenting soaps and perfumery. The 
patchouli leaves are fermented in heaps before being dis- 
tilled. The plant has long been cultivated in the Straits Set- 
tlements and in the islands of the Indian Ocean. The Chinese 
seem to be particularly adept at m.aking a success of this crop. 
The plants attain their full height within 6 months after seed- 
ing, at which time the first crop of leaves is taken. Two other 
crops of leaves may be obtained at intervals of about 6 months, 
after which the crop is replanted. 

Cummin oil is produced chiefly in Sicily, Malta, and India. 
The fruit of the cummin yields 2 to 4 per cent, of a yellow 
oil by distillation. Cummin oil is not extensively used. 

Pimento oil comes into the trade chiefly from the West 
Indies. Pimento oil is also commonly known as allspice oil 




IlAKVESTiiSG Olives in Tebourba, Tunis 




Bamboo Plantation in Louisiana 



OILS 289 

and is derived by distillation of the dried unripe allspice ber- 
ries. The dried berries yield 3 to 4 per cent, of a reddish oil 
which is much used for flavoring purposes. 

Oil of bay is derived from a tree {Pimenta acris), closely 
related to the allspice bush. It is a small, handsome tree suit- 
able for use in ornamenting gardens and grounds. The leaves 
yield by distillation i to 3 per cent, of oil which is chiefly used 
in the preparation of bay rum. The best grade of the oil 
comes from St. Thomas. The tree begins bearing oil-yielding 
leaves at 3 years of age. The average yield of oil is 50 pounds 
per acre annually. 

Cajuput oil is obtained from a shrub {Melaleuca cajuputi), 
native of Bouru and Banda Islands. The shrub belongs to the 
family Myrtacese. The oil is obtained by distillation of the 
leaves and is of greenish color. Cajuput oil is used in medi- 
cine chiefly for external application. The United States im- 
ports 10,000 pounds of this oil annually. 

Lignaloe oil comes upon the market chiefly from Mexico. 
It is derived b}'- distillation of the wood of Bursera delpechi- 
ana and B. aloexylon. Oil of the same name also comes from 
South America, where it is obtained from Ocotea caudata. 
The Mexican trees yield the best oil when 40 to 60 years old. 
On young trees, however, strips of bark are removed to hasten 
the maturity of the wood. In order to obtain the oil the wood 
is cut into chips and distilled. It yields 7 to 10 per cent, of the 
oil. Lignaloe oil is an important Mexican export product. 

Star anise oil is derived by distillation from the fresh fruits 
of star anise (Illicium verum), native to China and Tonkin. 
It is also widely cuhivated in various parts of the Tropics and 
subtropics. The plant is propagated by seed and the seedlings 
are taken from the nurseries for planting at the age of i 
year. The tree is pyramidal in shape and attains a height of 
25 to 50 feet. The tree begins bearing at 10 years of age. 
Upon distillation the fruits yield 1.5 per cent, of oil which is 
much used in flavoring liqueurs. The tree fruits twice annually. 



CHAPTER XIX 

TIMBERS AND WOODS 

For the most part the general character of tropical forests 
is very different from that of forests in cold climates. One 
becomes accustomed to forests made up of one or two pre- 
dominating species of trees with only an occasional bush or 
tree of another species scattered here and there through the 
otherwise almost pure stand. Some of the familiar combina- 
tions of trees are oak and chestnut, beech and maple, pine and 
hemlock, etc. Besides these mixed stands of only two pre- 
dominant species we have the immense areas of white pine, fir, 
spruce, and other soft woods in which almost no other species 
of tree occurs. Tropical forests present a very different ap- 
pearance. Most of these forests consist of a mixture of many 
species of trees. In some cases the forest is composed of 
several hundred species of trees, with no one species covering 
any part of the forest exclusively. The mixed nature of 
tropical forests has offered a considerable economic disadvan- 
tage to lumbermen in that they can not harvest areas con- 
tinuously but must seek here and there for specimens of the 
particular kind of tree which they desire. Not all tropical 
forests, however, are of such a mixed nature. There are quite 
pure stands in large areas of teak, eucalyptus, Albizzia, wattle, 
candlenut, algaroba, oil palm, quebracho, ohia, etc. 

So much has been written of the extremely hard and heavy 
woods which occur in tropical countries that a misconception 
as to the relative importance of heavy woods in the Tropics 
has taken root. It is quite absurd to suppose that all of the 
important tropical timbers are heavier than water, although 

290 



TIMBERS AND WOODS 291 

several of them will sink in water even after cured and many 
more are heavier than water in a green condition. To assume, 
however, that mahogany, ebony, and lignum vitse are the really 
important timbers of the Tropics would be as ridiculous as 
to assert that black walnut, quartered oak, and curly maple 
are the most important timbers of the United States. Trop- 
ical timbers and woods are of great variety and of great im- 
portance. The few species which are imported to Europe and 
the United States give only the faintest idea of the extent and 
variety of tropical timbers. 

At the outset it may be well to state that in the Tropics, just 
as in northern climates, soft woods are of vastly wider extent 
and importance than hard woods. 

The family Dipterocarpacese furnishes the most important 
timbers, especially in the Oriental Tropics. It is a large fam- 
ily with numerous species of trees which are universally used 
in tropical countries for general construction purposes. The 
sal tree (Shorea robusta) occurs in immense areas of almost 
pure stand in India. This tree is called guijo in the Philip- 
pines. It furnishes a hard and moderately heavy wood, used 
in ship building, houses, planks, carriages, and for numerous 
miscellaneous purposes. The eng tree (Dipterocarpus grandi- 
-florus) of the Phihppines, Borneo, and Malaya Peninsula, and 
called apitong in the Philippines, furnishes a fairly hard and 
heavy wood, used in heavy structural work, planks, railroad 
ties, and many other purposes. The sal and eng are only 
two examples chosen from the important trees of this family. 
There are more than lOO species of Dipterocarpacese which 
are used commercially in the Oriental Tropics. 

The legume family is next in importance as a source of tim- 
ber and wood and stands first in the production of woods for 
furniture and ornamental purposes. These woods are often 
highly colored and of good grain, and many of them are 
widely used for building purposes and for structural work. 
For example, Acacia catechu, besides yielding a cutch from 



292 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

the wood, is also used in farm implements and for railroad 
ties. Various species of Albizzia furnish excellent wood for 
houses, boat building, furniture, tea boxes, farm implements, 
bridges, etc. Golden shower (Cassia fistula), a smooth-bark 
tree, with drooping racemes of beautiful yellow flowers, fur- 
nishes a hard, heavy wood, gray or red in color, and brittle, 
but more durable in the soil than even teak. It is extensively 
used for fence posts, boat spars, carts, etc. 

Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) is one of the famous legu- 
minous trees of India. The wood is extremely hard and 
heavy. The heartwood is of a purple color with black streaks 
and with a rose-like odor. This tree furnishes the Indian 
rosewood or blackwood. Among the other Indian trees which 
produce rosewood, mention may be made of D. sissoo and 
Pterocarpus indicus. The Seychelles rosewood comes from 
Thespesia populnea, which is called "milo" in Hawaii. Brazil 
supplies a large part of the rosewood of commerce from the 
tree D. nigra. The grades of rosewood known as violet wood 
and king wood come from other related species of trees in 
South America and Madagascar. In fact, the rosewood of 
commerce is derived from more than 25 species of trees, of 
which D. latifolia is the best Indian species for cabinet and 
furniture purposes. 

Andaman redwood, named from its origin in the Andaman 
Islands, is derived from Pterocarpus dalhergioides. This tree 
produces a red heartwood streaked with black and brown. 
The wood is extensively employed in the manufacture of fur- 
niture, door frames, balustrades, finishings of Pullman cars, 
and for other purposes. 

The family Ebenaceae is chiefly noted for furnishing the 
ebony of commerce. There are about 30 species in this fam- 
ily which produce ebony, the best grade coming from species 
of Diospyros, to which our common persimmon belongs. Eb- 
ony is very heavy, extremely hard, and of a black or dark 
greenish color streaked with black. Coramandel wood is a 



TIMBERS AND WOODS 293 

rare, variegated sort of ebony obtained from the tree D. 
qtursita. Ebony is used for canes, inlaying, fine cabinets and 
furniture, piano keys, violin keyboards, rulers, and other sim- 
ilar purposes. The wood is very fine-grained and does not 
warp. The ebony of commerce comes largely from India, 
Ceylon, Malaya, Java, the Philippines, Africa, and Mauritius. 

Lignum vitse (Guaiacum oificinale) is a tree native to South 
America and the West Indies. This tree furnishes perhaps the 
heaviest of all woods. The fibers are much twisted and the 
color of the wood is dark brown with black streaks. It is 
extremely tough and is therefore used in the manufacture 
of bowling balls, rollers, propeller bushing, and for similar 
purposes. Lignum vitse is becoming scarce and substitutes 
for it are much sought. Perhaps the best substitute for this 
wood is mancono (Xanthostemon verdugonianus) of the Phil- 
ippines. Mancono wood is of about the same specific gravity 
and toughness as lignum vitae and is even harder. Many 
other woods are also used as substitutes for lignum vitae, espe- 
cially Calophyllum inophyllum and Dodoncra viscosa. 

Mahogany (Swietenia mahogani) is a tree native to Central 
America and South America. The tree was first brought to 
Europe by Spanish explorers. This and related species have 
been introduced into India and the Philippines, where they are 
cultivated to some extent. Mahogany is becoming so scarce 
that about 25 substitutes are in use to replace it. Mahogany 
is the most highly prized of cabinet woods. It is used for 
fine cabinet purposes, furniture, and piano cases, now mostly 
as a veneer. In the Philippines Pterocarpus indicus yields a 
wood which is called Philippine mahogany. This wood varies 
from straw color to blood red. The trees reach such size that 
planks 25 feet long and 6 feet wide have been obtained. It 
takes a high polish. Philippine mahogany is used extensively 
for cigar boxes. 

Kauri pine (Agathis rohusta), of New Zealand and Queens- 
land, is a stately conifer 150 feet high, often with a fine bole 



294s TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

lOO feet long. The tree is peculiarly free from defects of any 
kind. The kauri pine is the most important timber tree in 
New Zealand. The tree often reaches a diameter of 15 feet 
at the base. The lumber is extensively exported to Europe 
and is used for all kinds of building purposes, flooring, siding, 
paneling, doors, etc. 

Karri (Eucalyptus versicolor) and jarrah (E. marginata), 
both native of Western Australia, attain such great size that 
huge planks of unusual width can be obtained from them. The 
wood is dark red, heavy, and hard. It is resistant to teredo 
and hence has been much used as piling. Karri and jarrah 
woods are also employed for paving blocks and heavy struc- 
tural work. The Australian Government made a large exhibit 
of these woods at the Portland Exposition for the purpose of 
calling attention to their value and usefulness for various pur- 
poses. 

Eucalyptus has been extensively planted in California where 
it was introduced in 1856. These trees are native of Australia, 
about 150 species being known. Of this number 75 species or 
more have been grown in California, but 90 per cent, of the 
eucalyptus in that State is blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus). 
Eucalyptus wood is used in California for fuel, piling, poles, 
railroad crossties, mine timbers, paving blocks, furniture, coop- 
erage, tool handles, and for many other purposes. The 
strength and durability of the wood are quite satisfactory. 
The chief disadvantage of eucalyptus wood is that it warps 
and checks badly in the seasoning. 

Sandalwood is obtained from Santalum album of India and 
Malaya and from related species which occur in Fiji, Hawaii, 
and elsewhere. These trees furnish the yellow or white san- 
dalwood of commerce. In the early days of the Hawaiian 
Monarchy, the demand for this wood was so great that the 
tree was practically exterminated in the Territory. The san- 
dalwood now has to be obtained from other sources in India 
and Malaya. It is used in inlaid work and for boxes, chests, 



TIMBERS AND WOODS S95 

fans, and for various other ornamental purposes. Sandalwood 
chests are greatly prized on account of their reputed immunity 
to insect attacks, and also on account of their aromatic and 
agreeable odor. Sandalwood is also used as a source of san- 
dalwood oil (which is discussed under oils) and is burned for 
incense. For this purpose it is ground and mixed in a paste- 
like material used by the Chinese in the form of fumigating 
sticks. Various species of trees have been used as substitutes 
for the sandalwood, particularly Exocarpus latifolia in the 
Philippines, Erythroxylon monogymnum in India, and Xime- 
nia americana in South America. 

Koa {Acacia koa), of Hawaii, is a tall leguminous tree with 
spreading crown and irregular, frequently conical trunk. The 
trunk of the koa tree is often 6 to 8 feet in diameter at the 
base but may taper rapidly to a relatively small diameter at 
the height of 20 feet. Koa is much sought for use in making 
furniture, cabinet cases, house finishing, canes, fancy boxes, 
and calabashes. It is exported to some extent to England 
and the United States but the trees are becoming scarce and 
the supply will hereafter be greatly limited unless efforts are 
made to cultivate the tree. 

Satinwood (Chloroxylon swietenia) is a tree native to India 
and Ceylon, which furnishes a hard, very heavy, and durable 
wood of a pale yellow color, and with a decided sheen when 
smoothed. Satinwood is much used for general construction 
work and even for railroad ties in India. In Europe and the 
United States, however, satinwood is much sought for inlay- 
ing, borders, scrolls, backs of brushes, veneer in fine furniture 
and railway cars, and for similar uses. Another form of sat- 
inwood is obtained in the West Indies from species of 
Xanthoxylum. 

West Indian cedar {Cedrela odorata), of the West Indies 
and South America, is a tall, handsome tree of the family 
Meliaceae, with pinnate, opposite leaves and greenish-white 
flowers. The wood is of a brick red, blood red, or purple- 



296 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

red color. It is quite immune to attacks from insects. West 
Indian cedar is soft, fragrant, and easily worked. It is most 
extensively used for making cigar boxes, canoes, and panel- 
ing. 

Ohia {Metrosideros polymorpha), of Hawaii, is a tall tree 
which occurs in pure stands on the mountain slopes of Hawaii. 
The trunks are angular and twisted, furnishing much dif- 
ficulty in the saw mill and occasioning a large amount of 
waste in sawing up the logs for lumber. Ohia forests are 
particularly abundant in the Puna district of Hawaii and on 
the windward side of Maui. A serious disease of unknown 
origin caused the destruction of several thousand acres of 
ohia on Maui. On the Island of Hawaii large areas of ohia 
have been cut for the manufacture of flooring, paving blocks, 
and railroad ties. Experiments by one of the western rail- 
roads indicated that ohia ties were very satisfactory and 
2,000,000 railroad ties were ordered on the strength of this 
experiment. 

Teak wood is obtained from the well known tree Tectona 
grandis, native of Malabar, Java, Burma, Siani, the Philip- 
pines, and neighboring regions. This tree belongs to the 
verbena family. It bears large, ovate leaves and racemes of 
small white flowers. The heartwood is of a golden yellow 
color, turning brown, and finally black with age. Teak is the 
world's standard of ship-building timber. It is moderately 
hard and extremely useful for all kinds of purposes. Teak is 
the chief export of Burma and India, being used chiefly for 
decks of steamers, backing of armor plates, house building, 
and general carpentry work. The best teak is obtained from 
Malabar, that obtained from Java, Burma, and Siam being 
slightly inferior and lighter in color and weight. Teak wood 
is of medium hardness and possesses a characteristic scent 
which depends upon an oil in the wood. On account of the 
enormous demand from all parts of the world for teak wood, 
it has been found profitable to cultivate this tree as a forest 



TIMBERS AND WOODS 297 

crop. It adapts itself readily to cultivation and makes an 
excellent growth even on relatively poor soils. 

Several species of trees yield a soft wood of peculiar phys- 
ical properties resembhng cork. Chief among these trees is 
kapok, Bombax malabarica, Alstonia scholaris, Erythrina 
indica, and species of Anona, Hibiscus, and Dyera. Cork ob- 
tained from the pith of so-called corkwood trees should be dis- 
tinguished from true cork, as the term is ordinarily used, 
which is derived from the bark of the cork oak (Quercus sur- 
her). This tree occurs in largest areas in Portugal, Spain, and 
France. Various other tropical trees possess a bark which is 
suitable for use as cork. The world's cork production amounts 
to 2,500,000 pounds annually. Practically all of this material 
comes from Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Tunis, Algeria, 
and Morocco. The commercial demand for cork is increasing. 

An immense and rapidly increasing industry is developing 
in the utilization of vegetable ivory in manufacturing buttons. 
In discussing tropical agriculture we may therefore refer to 
the button crop as one of great importance. Vegetable ivory 
is obtained from a considerable number of palms, particularly 
the tagua palm {Phytelaphus macrocarpa) and about 20 other 
species belonging to the same genus. In addition to this group 
of tagua palms, a number of other species furnish a vegetable 
ivory of considerable value. Among these species is Metroxy- 
lon vitiense, a palm native to Fiji. The nuts from this tree 
furnish a vegetable ivory which comes on the market under 
the name Australian corozo. About 500,000 pounds of these 
nuts go to Europe annually. The nuts of M, amicarum are 
also used for the same purpose. Another palm, known as 
Hyphcena thehaica, yields Abyssinian corozo. This palm 
abounds in Nubia, Abyssinia, and desert parts of Africa and 
Asia Minor. It is sometimes called the king of the desert. The 
tree bears nuts 2 inches long and i inch broad from which 
good buttons are prepared, but the material is not so hard as 
the nuts of the other species mentioned above. In addition to 



S98 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

these palms we may mention Borassus iiabelliformis, Raphia 
vinifera, Attalea funifera, and Corypha umbraculifera as 
sources of vegetable ivory suitable for use in making buttons. 

The use of the nuts of the tagua, or vegetable ivory palm, 
for the manufacture of buttons, dates back about 50 years, 
when this material first came into notice from nuts shipped out 
of Ecuador. After a few experiments with the hard kernel 
of these nuts, vegetable ivory sprang into great favor as a but- 
ton material. The industry has rapidly increased in Ecuador 
until at present about 20,000 tons of vegetable ivory nuts are 
exported annually from Ecuador alone. Constantly increas- 
ing quantities are also being shipped from Colombia, Panama, 
and Central America. The tagua palm occurs chiefly near the 
sea coast from Panama to Peru, but is also found at elevations 
as high as 2,500 feet. The palm grows slowly, finally attain- 
ing a height of 10 to 20 feet or rarely 30 feet. The leaves 
resemble somewhat those of the coconut palm. The first flow- 
ers appear at the age of 3 or 4 years, the male and female in- 
florescence differing greatly in appearance. The male flowers 
appear in a cylindrical spike about 4 feet long, while the fe- 
male flowers are grouped in a shorter cluster. The tagua 
palm bears the year round, flowers, immature, and mature 
fruits occurring on the plant at the same time. The fruit re- 
sulting from the female inflorescence is in the form of a large, 
spiny, spherical mass, containing 60 to 90 nuts in clusters of 
5 or 6. The spiny burr-like covering of the fruit opens at the 
bottom when mature, allowing the nuts to fall out. 

The kernel of the nut does not reach its maximum of hard- 
ness until the nut is completely mature. As a rule, therefore, 
the nuts are gathered from the ground, since, if the whole fruit 
were removed, some of the nuts would be found to be imma- 
ture. The vegetable ivory palm begins bearing at 6 years of 
age and continues to bear merchantable nuts for 50 to 100 
years. The ordinary price paid to the laborer who gathers 
the nuts is 50 cents per 100 pounds. 



TIMBERS AND WOODS 299 

The United States occupies an important place in the manu- 
facture of buttons from vegetable ivory. Of the 50,000,000 
pounds of vegetable ivory nuts exported from South Amer- 
ica annually, more than 27,000,000 pounds come to the United 
States. There are reported to be 23 button factories using this 
material in this country, the chief centers being Rochester, 
Brooklyn, Newark, and Springfield, Massachusetts. 

The vegetable ivory nuts are somewhat flattened and about 
2 inches in the longest diameter. The vegetable ivory nut 
contains a small cavity and the tissue immediately surrounding 
the cavity is softer and more likely to show defects than the 
outer portion of the nut. A chip to be used for making but- 
tons is sawed from either side of the nut and the rest of the 
material becomes waste. From vegetable ivory nuts, but- 
tons are prepared varying in size from 54 to 1^4 inches in 
diameter. The process of sawing, shaping, polishing and dye- 
ing vegetable ivory buttons has been carefully developed in the 
button factories of the United States and the industry is con- 
stantly growing. 

In the technical utilization of vegetable ivory for button 
manufacture it has been found that there is a shrinkage of 650 
pounds per ton in drying the nuts and removing the shells. 
In sawing out the chips for use in button manufacture there 
is a waste from sawdust and cores of another 400 pounds. A 
ton of nuts, therefore, yields approximately 950 pounds of 
material available for making buttons. Recently efforts have 
been made to find a use for this waste material. Vegetable 
ivory sawdust has been used in Germany as an adulterant of 
coffee along with ground date seeds and other material. An 
analysis of vegetable ivory sawdust shows that it contains 10.6 
per cent, of water, 1.95 per cent, ash, 0.96 per cent, fat, 3.28 
per cent, protein, and 83.21 per cent, fiber and nitrogen-free 
extract. A test of this material as cattle feed at the Mas- 
sachusetts Experiment Station indicated that it is fairly di- 
gestible and possesses some value as a feed. 



300 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

This brief discussion of tropical timbers and woods has 
taken account merely of a few of the most important and 
interesting ones, particularly from the viewpoint of their utili- 
zation in the United States. As already indicated, the Tropics 
produce a very large number of trees of commercial impor- 
tance. The Philippine forests alone contain more than 2,500 
species of trees, of which at least 400 are used for economic 
purposes in Manila and elsewhere in the islands. Only 6 or 8 
of these species, however, are really of great importance as 
commercial sources of timber and wood. The timber resources 
of our other tropical possessions are of much less importance. 
In Hawaii, practically the only export timber is obtained from 
ohia and koa, the sandalwood tree being practically extermi- 
nated. 



CHAPTER XX 
LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 

Legumes occupy as important a place in the ration of the 
inhabitants and live stock of the Tropics and in the fertility 
of the tropical soils as is filled by these plants in northern 
climates. Many of the familiar legumes of the United States 
are found growing to some extent in most tropical countries, 
but the list of leading legumes in the Tropics is quite differ- 
ent from that of the United States. In tropical countries 
there is much greater predominance of leguminous trees and 
shrubs. Many of the large forest and ornamental trees are 
leguminous. One need only mention tamarind, Poinciana, 
algaroba, and the numerous species of Acacia, Cassia, Albiz- 
zia, and Pterocarpus, as well as the numerous shrubby and 
half-shrubby legumes of lesser economic importance. 

A great variety of native grasses are used for various 
economic purposes in the Tropics. There are certain species 
of grasses, however, which have become of almost world-wide 
distribution, at least in tropical countries, and attention is 
given in this chapter chiefly to these important species of 
almost universal distribution rather than to the innumerable 
native species of grass which are locally utilized for grazing 
or forage purposes. 

There is also a rather large list of miscellaneous forage 
plants and products which merit some attention. In the Ori- 
ental Tropics nothing is wasted. The American farmer has 
little conception of the painstaking economy of the Oriental. 
The strictest economy practiced by the most up-to-date Ameri- 
can farmer would appear to the Oriental to be little less than 

301 



802 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

sheer wanton wastefulness. No part or portion of any for- 
age plant is allowed to go to waste in the Oriental Tropics. 
All this material is utilized either for human food, as feed 
for stock, or for some technical purpose, and ultimately every 
scrap of the by-product is returned to the soil as a source of 
fertility. All kinds of oil cakes, particularly those obtained 
from oil palm, coconut, peanut, soy bean. Para rubber, etc., 
are utilized for feed and for other purposes to the fullest 
extent. Moreover, such unpromising materials as sisal waste, 
obtained in the decortication of sisal fibers add to the list of 
forage materials. Then, too, there is the wide use of ti leaves, 
banana trunks and leaves, fern trunks, and even the trunks of 
the papaya tree. All of these materials furnish more or less 
valuable additions to the list of forage products. 

LEGUMES 

Of the various leguminous trees which have been utilized 
for commercial purposes in the Tropics, the algaroba is per- 
haps the most important. This tree, in the form in which it 
occurs in Hawaii, is commonly referred by botanists to Proso- 
pis juHHora. Much difference in opinion prevails, however, 
as to the correct botanical name for the tree, and until this 
point is settled it may as well be known by the scientific name 
just mentioned. Algaroba is native to Central America and 
South America, and related forms are of wide occurrence in 
Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, where at least two species 
are known under the common names mesquite and screw bean. 

It is in Hawaii, however, that the representative tree of 
this group, known as algaroba, has attained its greatest sig- 
nificance. The tree reaches a height of 15 to 50 feet and a 
trunk diameter up to 30 inches. The cream-colored or pale 
yellow flowers are borne in slender axillary spikes or catkins. 
The leaves are bi-pinnate and the pods are linear or curved, 
4 to 9 inches long, somewhat flattened but thick, and slightly 



LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 303 

constricted between the seeds. Both spiny and spineless forms 
of this tree occur and some indication has been obtained in 
Hawaii that the spineless condition is to a large extent heredi- 
tary. 

Some idea of the ease with which this tree may be dis- 
tributed may be gained by a brief consideration of its history 
in Hawaii. The tree was first brought to Hawaii in 1828 and 
the original tree still stands in the city of Honolulu. It has 
been propagated almost entirely by seed and for the most part 
without any attention to artificial distribution. The pods are 
a favorite food of all kinds of live stock and the seeds have 
been for the most part distributed through the agency of live 
stock. The pods possess a firm, fibrous covering which in- 
closes a sugary pulp of rnolasses-like consistency in the cen- 
ter of which is embedded a row of seeds, each seed being 
inclosed in an extremely hard case. These seed cases are not 
digested by live stock but are merely softened somewhat by 
the digestive juices. The seeds, therefore, pass through cattle, 
horses, and pigs in excellent condition for germination. In 
fact, it has been found that the best method of planting al- 
garoba seed consists in feeding the whole pods to cattle 
or horses and then planting the manure of these animals in 
places where it is desired to extend the distribution of the 
tree. In Hawaii, this tree shows by its distribution how effec- 
tive a method of planting trees may be found in the natural 
wandering of live stock upon the range. 

The tree thrives best at sea level in dry regions. Thus 
far it has not borne crops at altitudes above 2,000 feet. More- 
over, the algaroba does not do well on the windward or rainy 
sides of the Pacific Islands. It will endure unusual droughts 
of long extent. It is not uncommon to see prickly pears and 
other drought-resistant plants wilt under the stress of severe 
drought, while algaroba maintains its foliage in good condi- 
tion and appears not to be greatly affected. Most of the 
roots of this tree are shallow but a few of them run to great; 



304 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

depths, sometimes 40 or 50 feet. The tree has been quite 
widely distributed in Australia, India, and the Philippines, but 
it has nowhere been so keenly appreciated as in Hawaii. For 
many years difficulties were experienced in grinding the al- 
garoba pods. All kinds of special mills and drug mills were 
tested for this purpose without success. The sugary pulp 
surrounding the seeds sooner or later causes the accumulation 
of a hard gum upon the machinery and renders the operation 
of the machine impossible. The Hawaii Experiment Station 
gave considerable attention to this matter in the hope of find- 
ing a way by which the seed could be ground and thus make 
available the chief source of protein in the pods. Finally a 
very simple solution of the problem was found. If the pods 
be kiln-dried they can be readily ground by the ordinary alfalfa 
meal machine. If, on the other hand, a very fine spray of 
water is allowed to play upon the rollers during the opera- 
tion of the machine, the algaroba beans can be readily ground 
without gumming the machinery. In the natural condition the 
molasses-like pulp is extremely sticky. When slightly moist- 
ened, however, or partly dried, the material offers little diffi- 
culty in grinding. 

In Hawaii the algaroba occupies an area of 50,000 acres 
or more, occurring on all the islands of the Territory. As 
soon as methods for grinding the beans were devised a large 
industry sprang up in preparing this feed. The industry now 
amounts to about $400,000 annually. The two companies 
which are preparing algaroba feed offer about $10 a ton for 
the algaroba beans in the pod, picked and delivered by the 
roadside. This makes a considerable source of revenue to 
men, women, and children of the poorer classes. The ground 
algaroba feed gives excellent results in rations for cows, 
horses, mules, pigs, or chickens. 

Recently some experiments have been carried on in using 
the ground material as a substitute for coffee. When the 
algaroba bean (and this term always means the whole pod, 



LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 305 

including the bean) is ground and roasted, the sugary pulp 
is caramelized and the material makes a fine and readily 
soluble substance of good flavor which can be used as a sub- 
stitute for coflfee. A company has recently been organized to 
put this material on the market. 

Carob bean (Ceratonia siliqua) is another leguminous tree' 
of much importance in tropical countries. It is a native of 
the Mediterranean region. Ordinarily it does not attain as 
great a size as the algaroba. The tree bears leathery pods 
4 to 9 inches long and i inch wide. The dark green leaves 
are simply pinnate. The tree is extremely long-lived. From 
the age of 20 to 60 years each tree may be expected to bear 
200 to 300 pounds of pods annually. The pulp of the pod 
contains 50 to 60 per cent, of sugar and this material is much 
used as a stock feed by the Arabs. It has long been imported 
into England under the name locust bean or St. John's bread. 
The pulp has also been used from the earliest antiquity as a 
human food and to some extent is made into a jam like tama- 
rind. The carob bean has been introduced into California, 
where it appears to thrive well. 

The pigeon pea, also sometimes called Porto Rican pea, 
on account of its wide use as human food among the Porto 
Ricans, is an erect and much branched legume which, if 
allowed to grow for several years, becomes semi-shrubby. Its 
botanical name is Cajanus indicus and the plant is native of 
India. It is now extensively cultivated throughout the Tropics, 
The green peas are used as human food in place of garden 
peas and in India the ripe peas are also used as human food. 
The ripe peas are favorite feed for chickens. For this pur- 
pose it is merely necessary to plant the chicken yard to this 
crop. The plants live as perennials and bear pods the year 
round which shed their peas so as to make an almost constant 
supply of feed for chickens. The plant is also useful at the 
same time as shade for poultry. Pigeon pea is also extensively 
used as a windbreak and as a green manure. The plant has 



306 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

been quite widely grown in Hawaii for the past 12 years. 
Exceptionally, it is allowed to grow for 8 to 10 years. It 
may attain a diameter of 8 inches, becoming almost a small 
tree. If not pruned back the plants readily reach a height 
of 10 feet within 2 years. It yields its first crop about 7 or 8 
months from the time of planting. The pods are 2 or 3 inches 
long and Yz inch wide and contain 4 to 6 seeds. Many varie- 
ties of pigeon peas are known, varying in color from light 
yellow to black and many of them variously speckled. As a 
low hedge plant the pigeon pea is extremely valuable in tropi- 
cal countries. When planted about gardens and pruned, it 
develops into a dense hedge somewhat resembhng the privet 
hedge in general appearance. In this form it is useful chiefly 
in protecting young seedlings and delicate plants from the 
effects of the constant trade winds. It is possible to obtain 
a dense pigeon-pea hedge 2 or 3 feet in thickness and 3 to 6 
feet in height. As a green manure plant it gives excellent 
results. For this purpose it is perhaps best planted broadcast 
or by drill, using about 2 bushels of seed per acre. The 
plants are readily plowed under after they attain a height of 
2 or 3 feet and the vegetable substance promptly decays into 
a form available as plant food. The pigeon pea is fairly free 
from serious insect pests except the small blue butterfly, the 
caterpillars of which live in the pods. 

Chick pea (Cicer arietinum) , also native of India, is much 
more widely cultivated in the Tropics than in northern cli- 
mates. It is commonly called garbanzo by the Porto Ricans 
and Mexicans who are particularly fond of the peas. In 
India, the chick pea is cultivated in large areas, especially 
for its seed, which is used as a stock feed and to some extent 
for adulterating coffee. The chick pea is an annual, attaining 
the height of 12 to 18 inches. The fuzzy pods contain only 
I or 2 peas. 

The soy bean (Glycine hispida), a legume native to China 
and Japan, is a familiar crop in most of the Southern and Cen- 



LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS SOT 

tral States. The soy bean shows a great variety of form and 
habit of growth. Some varieties are raised exclusively for 
the bean, and these forms shed the most of their foliage 
before the beans are mature. Some of these dwarf forms do 
not stand higher than 8 to lo inches. Other varieties are better 
adapted as forage plants and attain a height of 2 or 3 feet, 
some of them showing a trailing habit. In tropical countries 
the soy bean is raised chiefly for the production of soy-bean 
oil and soya sauce. The crop is widely cultivated by the 
Japanese in Hawaii, but the great local demand for soy beans 
by the soya sauce factories makes it necessary to import an 
additional 2,500,000 pounds of the beans annually. The dwarf 
early-maturing varieties produce from 600 to 1,000 pounds of 
beans per acre and the yield of the late, tall varieties is nearly 
twice as great. 

The velvet bean is one of the favorite leguminous crops 
of the Tropics, several varieties being used particularly as a 
green manure crop. The velvet bean is now referred to the 
genus Stizolobium. In Hawaii a number of varieties of the 
velvet bean have proved to be satisfactory, particularly the 
Florida velvet bean, the Mauritius or Bengal bean, and the 
Lyon velvet bean. The last named variety comes from the 
Philippines, where the beans are much used as human food. 
They resemble Lima beans in appearance and flavor. As a 
green manuring crop the Lyon velvet bean has given perhaps 
the best results. It matures in about 165 days from planting 
and yields an immense crop of green material for plowing 
under. The crop is also used as a green feed or hay for 
cattle. It is little affected by serious insect pests. 

In tropical countries, as in northern climates, alfalfa is 
one of the most important herbaceous legumes. It occupies 
a peculiarly important place in agriculture in the Tropics for 
the reason that the ordinary clovers, such as white, red, and 
alsike clovers, do not thrive well in tropical countries except 
at high altitudes. All the well known varieties of alfalfa 



308 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

have been grown in the Tropics. In general, Turkestan and 
Arabian alfalfa have given better results in point of yield 
and in quick growth after cutting than the common alfalfa. 
Alfalfa may be depended upon in tropical climates to yield 
a crop each month the year round. It is therefore not so 
necessary to cure the crop for hay as in cold climates, since 
it is possible to secure a continuous supply of green feed 
from a plantation of alfalfa. Under favorable conditions 13 
crops have been obtained in 12 months. 

It is particularly desirable in planting alfalfa in the Trop- 
ics to avoid infestation with dodder as far as possible. Dod- 
der, like the alfalfa, of course, grows the year round and 
spreads with sufficient rapidity to be a very serious pest if 
once introduced into a field of alfalfa. While it is customary 
to harvest 10 to 13 crops of alfalfa per year in tropical cli- 
mates, the total annual acre yield is not higher than is 
obtained in favorable localities in Arizona, New Mexico, and 
California. 

If it were not for the unusually serious attacks of plant 
lice, to which cowpeas seem to be particularly susceptible, this 
crop would be perhaps the most valuable leguminous crop 
for forage and green manuring in most tropical countries. In 
some localities, however, the planting of cowpeas is a hazard 
on account of the frightful scourge of plant lice. A fine 
crop of cowpeas may be entirely destroyed in the course of 
10 days. In some instances, the whole surface of the plants, 
stems, and leaves are completely covered with plant lice. Lady 
birds and parasitic insects multiply with great rapidity, but 
these natural enemies of the plant lice seldom succeed in 
destroying them before the cowpea crop is ruined. 

In general, it has been found that the drier and warmer 
regions and seasons are best adapted to this crop and it should 
preferably be grown without irrigation. The largest yields 
of seed and forage are obtained when the crop is drilled in 
rows and well cultivated between the rows. 



LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 309 

Jack bean {Canavalia ensiformis) is an annual, bushy 
legume, native to the West Indies and attaining a height of 
2 to 5 feet. It bears handsome, purple flowers and sword- 
like pods 9 to 15 inches long and an inch or more wide, with 
about 12 large pure white beans in each pod. The beans bear 
a brown hilum. The jack bean is cultivated in the West In- 
dies, southern United States, Java, Hawaii, and quite gen- 
erally throughout the Tropics, chiefly as a green manuring 
crop. The jack bean is particularly well favored for growth 
in tropical countries on account of its hardiness and relative 
immunity to insect attacks. Plant lice seldom appear in in- 
jurious numbers on the jack bean. The plant yields from 
16 to 20 tons of green forage per acre and about 1,200 pounds 
of seed. Usually only one crop is obtained from a single 
planting. In fact, the plant is considered an annual. Occa- 
sionally, however, a good rattoon crop has been obtained, 
particularly if the first cutting is made before the plants are 
mature. Jack bean is particularly valuable as a green manure 
crop for planting between rows of sugar cane, coffee, rubber, 
and sisal, where it can be plowed under as a source of plant 
food. The plant is quite strongly resistant to drought but 
is not equal to velvet beans in this regard. Perhaps the 
largest yields are obtained by planting the beans in rows 
18 inches apart and 6 to 10 inches apart in the individual 
row. 

The sword bean (C. gladiata) has often been grouped to- 
gether with the jack bean, which it closely resembles. This 
plant is widely cultivated in tropical Asia, Africa, Hawaii, 
and ge^ierally in the Tropics. The plant closely resembles 
the jack bean, but the pods are somewhat shorter and wider 
and the beans are either red, gray, or white. The sword 
bean is somewhat used as a vegetable, the young, green pods 
and beans being employed for this purpose, especially in In- 
dia, Ceylon, Burma, Japan, and Mauritius. Otherwise, the 
sword bean is chiefly used as a cover crop and as forage for 



310 TEOPICAL AGRICULTURE 

cattle. For the latter purpose it is superior to the jack bean, 
which often possesses a bitter flavor. 

Crotalaria, under various specific forms, occurs everywhere 
in the Tropics. One of these species is sunn hemp (C 
juncea), which is discussed under fiber plants but is also much 
used as a cover crop. This is a slender, erect species, with 
conspicuous yellow flowers. One of the most important forms 
of Crotalaria for use as a green manure in Hawaii is C. sal- 
tiana, which has in recent years given a good account of 
itself for this purpose. This form of Crotalaria is unusually 
hardy. It thrives either in wet or dry districts. It will make 
a fairly good crop under a rainfall of 20 inches and thrives 
abundantly under a rainfall of 200 inches. The seed will 
germinate promptly without attention after scattering broad- 
cast upon the soil. This Crotalaria is not useful for feed but 
is an exceptionally good green manuring crop. It is not at- 
tacked by insects, except the blue butterfly, which merely 
reduces the number of pods. The seed of the plant can be 
readily obtained by offering children 10 cents a pound for it. 
This species of Crotalaria has been recently used with pro- 
nounced success as a green manuring crop in Hawaii and 
elsewhere. 

The kudzu bean (Pueraria thunbergiana) of Japan and 
China is quite hardy outside of the Tropics. It is a perennial 
legume with large starchy roots. The plants grow only a 
few feet during the first season, but may reach a length of 
40 to 75 feet during the second year. It is propagated in 
Florida by cuttings or seed and is used as a cattle pasture 
and as an arbor vine. Moreover, in Japan a fine grade of 
starch is extracted from the roots for special use in con- 
fectionery. Kudzu bean yields a heavy crop of hay which 
contains about 17 per cent, of protein and 30 per cent, of 
carbohydrates. 

The adzuki bean (Phaseolus angularis) of southeastern 
Asia is widely grown for human food in China, Japan, and 



LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 311 

India. It is often cultivated in rotation between crops of 
rice. The adzuki bean is an erect, bushy legume i to 3 feet 
high. The yield averages 30 to 40 bushels of beans per acre. 

Guar {Cyamopsis tetragonoloha) of the East Indies is an 
erect, single-stemmed or branching annual legume. It is 
used in India chiefly as a green feed for cattle, but the dry 
beans are also used in fattening cattle and the green beans 
as human food, especially in curries. Guar is extremely 
resistant to drought. It grows 3 to 6 feet high. This plant 
is cultivated to some extent in Oklahoma, Texas, California, 
and other Southern States. 

Bonavist bean, also called lablab bean (Dolichos lablab), 
of India, is a vigorous, perennial, woody, climbing legume, 
with white, purple, or red flowers, flat pods, and white or 
black beans with a conspicuous hilum. The pods, together 
with the beans, are consumed as human food by the Orientals, 
especially during the young and tender stages. Lablab bean 
gives some promise as a hay and forage crop in Texas, Florida, 
and Cuba. 

Kulthi (D. hiHorus) of India is an annual running vine 
cultivated in India chiefly as human food and also for cattle. 
The dried beans are used as human food, while the hay is 
fed to cattle. As a forage crop this plant has given good 
results in Texas. In Hawaii the yield averages about 1,400 
pounds of seed per acre. 

Moth bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius) of India is an annual, 
densely branching legume about 18 inches tall, with a spread 
of 2 or 3 feet. The moth bean is grown in India for the 
dried beans which are used as human food. In the Pan- 
handle district of Texas, this bean yields 2 tons of hay per 
acre, which, in most respects, has proved to be superior to 
cowpea hay. 

The winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolohus) of Malaya 
is a vigorous, perennial climber with showy blue flowers and 
curious square pods 4 to 9 inches long. The green pods and 



Sn TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

beans are highly relished as human food in India. The plant 
is also cultivated in Burma for its large starchy roots. 

Mungo bean (Phase olus mungo) is a small, herbaceous 
legume native to India. It is now quite generally cultivated 
in tropical countries. There are many varieties of mungo, 
the seeds varying in color from red to yellow or green. The 
seeds are extremely small and are borne in slender pods. The 
plant is erect or semi-erect in habit, attaining a height of i 
to 2 feet. Mungo beans are used in rotation between rice 
crops in Japan, where the seeds are also used in preparing 
a fondant for fine confectionery. The bean is also exten- 
sively used as human food in India. Moreover, in Hawaii, 
the mungo bean appears to be a promising crop. 

A closely related species (P. semierectus) is coming into use 
in Hawaii as a green manure. This plant is a much branched 
creeper, bearing handsome dark purple flowers and long, 
slender, terete pods containing minute beans. Under favor- 
able conditions it produces a large amount of vegetable sub- 
stance and seems to have much value as a green manure 
crop. 

GRASSES 

Among the numerous grasses cultivated in tropical coun- 
tries, a prominent place must be given to Para grass (Panicum 
barhinode) , a native of South America. This species is com- 
monly called Panicum grass in Hawaii, where it was intro- 
duced from Fiji in 1902, after which it became rapidly 
distributed over the Territory, Para grass is a coarse, long- 
stemmed grass which readily roots at the joints. It is widely 
cultivated throughout the Tropics as a forage grass and for 
this purpose is extremely valuable. After a planting has 
once been established it requires little or no attention, except 
to cut a crop at frequent intervals. It is not drought re- 
sistant, and therefore does not yield heavily in dry regions 
unless irrigation water is applied. The Para grass does not 



LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 313 

seed profusely and in many localities the seed seems to be 
sterile. For this reason it is almost universally propagated 
by sections of the long, jointed stems which strike root read- 
ily when planted in the soil. Para grass is not only valuable 
for green forage and hay but has recently been employed in 
Hawaii as a green manure crop. The pineapple growers have 
found that if segments of the stems of Para grass are scattered 
broadcast over a field of pineapples after the second rattoon 
crop of fruit has been removed, it is possible to cut up the 
pineapple leaves and plant the Para grass simultaneously by 
running over the field with a disk harrow heavily loaded. 
For forage purposes Para grass is commonly propagated by 
planting the sections of the stem a few inches apart in rows 
I to 2 feet apart. 

The Guinea grass (P. maximum) is a related species, na- 
tive to Africa, but of quite different habit of growth. This 
grass has become widely distributed throughout the West 
Indies and various other parts of the Tropics. It is readily 
propagated by seed or by division of the roots. The Guinea 
grass has an upright habit of growth and sometimes attains 
a height of 6 to lo feet. Such coarse growth is run through 
a feed cutter before being used as a forage for cattle or horses. 
From 4 to 8 cuttings annually may be obtained. In propagat- 
ing this grass by other methods than by seed it is customary 
to plant root divisions in rows 5 feet apart and about 2 feet 
apart in the row. The Guinea grass has the habit of a bunch 
grass. 

Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), of South Africa, is an ex- 
tremely valuable hay grass in tropical and semi-tropical re- 
gions. For this purpose it is largely used not only in Africa 
but also in Australia, Hawaii, and various other tropical re- 
gions. A planting of Rhodes grass will yield satisfactory 
crops of hay for a period of 7 to lO years, after which the 
planting must be renewed. Rhodes grass is extremely re- 
sistant to drought. It has an upright habit of growth, reaching 



314 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

a height of 2 to 5 feet. In newly planted fields the plants put 
out horizontal runners which may extend 6 to 8 feet from 
the parent plants. These runners root at the joints and 
thus aid the rapid extension of the plant. The stems of 
Rhodes grass are fine and the quality of hay appears to be 
excellent. The seed may be sown broadcast or preferably 
by drill. About 2 pounds of seed are required for an acre. 

Natal red-top {Tricholoena rosea) is an erect, perennial 
grass with graceful, rose-pink, flowering panicles. When in 
full flowering it is one of the most beautiful of grass crops. 
Natal red-top is primarily a hay grass and does not with- 
stand overgrazing. The grass will reach a height of 2 feet 
about 3 months from the time of seeding. The young growth 
is tender but old stems become tough and wiry. Unless the 
season is unusually dry, from 4 to 6 crops may be expected 
annually. On the Island of Kauai, Natal red-top has been 
found to be a very valuable grass when planted together with 
water grass. 

Water grass (Paspahtm dilatatum), a native of tropical 
America, is one of the most valuable and important grasses 
in tropical countries. It was introduced from Australia into 
Hawaii about 30 years ago, where it has become a favorite 
grazing grass on the cattle ranches. At sea level, especially 
on the leeward coasts of the islands in the trade-wind belt, 
water grass makes a good growth only during and following 
the rainy season. The best results are obtained from this 
grass in regions where the rainfall ranges from 60 to 120 
inches annually. As a grazing grass it has given an excel- 
lent account of itself wherever it has been used. On the 
Island of Kauai, it has been found that water grass, planted 
at distances of 6 to 10 feet apart both ways in dense areas of 
the worthless Hilo grass {P. conjugatum) , will crowd out 
and entirely displace the Hilo grass within 2 or 3 years. 

The seed of the water grass is often of poor quality. In 
some tests only 25 per cent, or even less is capable of germina- 



LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 315 

tion. For this reason it is necessary to use 6 to lo pounds 
in seeding an acre. Moreover, a reasonable amount of 
moisture is necessary for the successful germination of the 
seed. 

Bermuda grass is an extremely hardy, vigorous, and useful 
grass in tropical countries. In Hawaii, it was introduced in 
1835 and now covers a larger area in the Territory than any 
other single species of grass. In Hawaii, the Bermuda grass 
is commonly known as manienie, from the Spaniard Marin, 
who is supposed to have introduced it. It is not valuable as 
a hay grass. In fact, it seldom reaches a height suitable for 
cutting. Thousands of acres of grazing land, however, would 
be practically barren if it were not for the Bermuda grass. 
Moreover, Bermuda grass is the only grass which has proved 
satisfactory for lawn purposes. It remains green the year 
round and is extremely sturdy in contesting the ground with 
weeds. On the Island of Lanai, 5,000 acres of wind-eroded 
soil was saved by planting Bermuda grass. This experiment 
was interesting as showing the great resistance of Bermuda 
grass to drought. The 5,000 acres of land had been eroded 
to a depth of several feet by the action of the fierce trade 
winds which continuously blow through the channel between 
Maui and Molokai. As a last resort, Bermuda grass was 
tried as a possible means of preventing further erosion. Sec- 
tions of the stem of this grass were planted at distances of 
8 feet apart both ways over the whole area. The rainfall 
in this region is extremely low and for a period of 2 years it 
was still doubtful whether the grass would grow. The whole 
area, however, is now completely covered with a dense mat 
of Bermuda grass serving as good grazing ground for cattle 
and sheep. 

A large form of Bermuda grass which has been called giant 
Bermuda grass was recently found in Mississippi, and has 
been distributed from there to various tropical and subtropical 
countries. It is propagated in the same way as the ordinary 



316 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

form of Bermula grass, namely, by stem cuttings. Some stems 
of the giant Bermuda grass were received by the Hawaii Sta- 
tion and planted in a dry locality on the station grounds. The 
plant made an astonishingly rapid growth, throwing out run- 
ners lo feet long within a period of 2 months. From this 
plat material was sent to several ranchers, who reported good 
results in both dry and wet districts. 

Sudan grass during the past few years has become familiar 
to all readers of agricultural literature on account of the 
great promise which it has given, especially in the Southern 
States. This grass, as is generally known, is essentially a 
variety of Johnson grass but without its underground root- 
stock. It is native of Africa. The grass was made the 
subject of experiment at the Hawaii Experiment Station, 
where it grew to a height of 5 feet and began flowering within 
55 days from seeding. The seed has been distributed to all 
of the islands and favorable reports have been received re- 
garding it from all locaHties except those at considerable alti- 
tudes. Neither the Sudan grass nor the closely related Tunis 
grass appear to thrive well at high altitudes. The Sudan 
grass rattoons readily provided a reasonable amount of 
moisture is furnished. One of the difficulties of growing the 
grass for seed in the Tropics is the extreme fondness which 
birds show for this seed. Sudan grass grows to a height of 
6 to II feet, but even the coarse stems of the rankest forms 
of the grass appear to be highly palatable to horses and cat- 
tle. The Tunis grass is a closely related variety, very similar 
to the Sudan grass, but it has a long narrow panicle. 

MISCELLANEOUS FORAGE PLANTS 

Mention has already been made at the beginning of this 
chapter of some of the miscellaneous plants and materials 
used for forage purposes in tropical countries. It might be 
well to give details regarding a few of these miscellaneous 



LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 317 

plants which are of special significance in certain tropical 
regions. 

The prickly pear is familiar to all persons who have trav- 
eled in the southwestern part of the United States. The ordi- 
nary prickly form of this plant is not considered satisfactory 
as a cattle food until the spines have been burned off. Vari- 
ous methods have been devised in Arizona and elsewhere for 
economically burning off the spines. Several species of Opun- 
tia, or prickly pear, occur in large areas in tropical countries. 
In parts of Australia the plant has become a veritable scourge 
and large rewards have been offered for a satisfactory means 
of eradicating it. 

In Hawaii the prickly pear bears two forms of fruit — 
red and white. These fruit are of a rather agreeable flavor 
and are somewhat used as human food. It requires extreme 
care in preparing them for use, however, on account of the 
danger of getting the minute spines mixed with the fruit. The 
prickly pear is one of the important forage crops on some of 
the cattle ranches in Hawaii. There are about 3,000 acres 
of this plant on the Island of Maui, and 10,000 acres or more 
on the leeward side of Hawaii. Cattle and horses eat this 
cactus chiefly during the dry season when other feed is want- 
ing. It is considered an emergency feed, but during the past 
15 years two or three droughts have occurred in which cattle 
were maintained for several months almost exclusively on the 
prickly pear. All tender parts of the plants within reach of 
the cattle were eaten by them and it became necessary for 
the cowboys to cut off higher branches in order to save the cat- 
tle. The prickly pear in Hawaii is extremely spiny, but 
cattle and horses have learned to eat the plants apparently 
without harm. 

Recently attention has been given to a smaller and almost 
spineless prickly pear which was introduced into Hawaii by 
Marin. This species attains a height of 6 to 8 feet and is 
densely branched. The slabs commonly have a length of 8 to 



318 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

10 inches and a width of 3 to 4 inches. The species appears 
to be more resistant than the common spiny form of prickly 
pear. In a comparative test of Marin cactus, ordinary spiny 
prickly pear, and various varieties of Burbank spineless cac- 
tus on the Island of Kahoolawe, the Marin cactus was the 
only one which successfully established itself. Moreover, the 
Marin cactus, under ordinary conditions, grows 3 or 4 times 
as fast as the common forms of spineless cactus. 

Honohono is the Hawaiian name for Commelina nudifiora, 
a succulent plant closely related to the common Tradescantia 
or wandering- jew. It grows as a weed in practically all of the 
rainy districts of the Territory. In fact, on some of the sugar 
plantations it has been found impossible to control or eradi- 
cate it by any other method than the use of a spray of ar- 
senite of soda. Honohono has been found to be an extremely 
valuable feed for dairy cows. For this purpose it is perhaps 
most extensively utilized in the region about Glenwood on the 
Island of Hawaii. There are several thousand acres covered 
with honohono in that region. It has been found that the 
plant rattoons very promptly after cutting and that the yield 
is readily maintained, particularly if a light dressing of manure 
is applied immediately after cutting. In some experiments 
recently conducted in that section, it was found that 12 crops 
per year could be obtained, totaling a yield of 200 tons of green 
material per acre. Judged by its chemical composition, hono- 
hono is not particularly nutritious since it contains about 90 
per cent, of water. It is an extremely valuable forage plant, 
however, in the section where it is used chiefly as a dairy feed, 
for the reason that most grasses, except perhaps Para grass, 
do not thrive well in the heavy rainfall of that district. The 
average rainfall of the district in question is about 250 inches 
per year. C. henghalensis is much used for the same purposes 
in Ceylon. 

Rainy districts in the Tropics are noted for the immense 
and graceful tree ferns which develop under such conditions. 



LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 319 

These ferns reach a height of 6 to 20 feet or more, rarely 50 
feet, and a trunk diameter of 6 to 12 inches. These immense 
trunks are filled with a soft starchy pulp. An analysis of 
the common tree fern of Hawaii (Cibotium chamissoi) shows 
that the trunk contains 69.38 per cent, moisture, 1.12 per cent, 
protein, 4.23 per cent, sugar, and 20.9 per cent, starch. 

In the region about the volcano Kilauea large forests of 
these tree ferns occur and in this region a rather novel use 
has been made of the trunks, particularly in feeding pigs. It 
was well known that the trunks were not particularly palatable 
in an uncooked condition. Large cooking vats were con- 
structed and put in use for preparing this material as a hog 
feed. For a distance of 3 or 4 miles about the living crater 
of the volcano there are numerous cracks from which live 
steam issues constantly. It was soon found that by preparing 
a grill and placing it across one of these cracks the immense 
fern trunks could be placed upon the grill and allowed to 
remain until they were thoroughly cooked in live steam. The 
value of fern roots as a pig feed is well understood in Oregon 
and Washington, where pigs are pastured on the large areas 
of cut-over lands in which the bracken fern grows profusely. 

In all sugar-cane districts, cane tops or cane trash are an 
important source of forage. When the sticks of cane are cut 
and cleaned for the mill, the leaves and tips of the stems are 
cut off. This material contains 74.47 per cent, of water, 1.54 
per cent, of protein, 0.42 per cent, of fat, 14.71 per cent, of 
nitrogen- free extract, 7.31 per cent, of fiber, and 1.55 per 
cent, of ash. The ratio of the weight of cane tops and cane 
trash to the weight of the sticks of cane has never been very 
accurately determined, and under different conditions varies 
considerably. It may be fairly estimated, however, that with 
a yield of 50 tons of cane per acre there are from 10 to 25 
tons of cane tops and leaves. This indicates at once the 
enormous amount of forage material which is available in the 
neighborhood of sugar-cane plantations. 



320 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

As already indicated in the chapter on sugar cane, all this 
material has been burned on many plantations, particularly 
in Hawaii. It is only recently that the frightful wastefulness 
of this practice has been reahzed. Cane tops and trash are 
now largely plowed under, but a vast amount of material is 
still available as stock feed. Cane tops or even the whole 
plant may be ensiled as easily as corn or any other common 
silage material. No difficulty is experienced in fermentation 
or spoiling if the material is handled properly in satisfactory 
silos. Cane silage develops no higher percentage of acid than 
corn silage. The material when properly fermented has a 
sweet-acid, and very agreeable flavor. The odor is not so 
unpleasant as that of corn silage. Cane tops or the whole 
cane may be made into silage by itself, or mixed with Para 
grass or other available materials. In Florida considerable 
attention has been given to this matter, and particularly with 
Japanese cane, a variety grown in Florida almost exclusively 
for forage purposes. Japanese cane is well adapted for use 
as a forage crop in all of the Gulf States. It has been found 
to furnish also satisfactory pasturage if stock are not allowed 
to remain in the field too late in the spring. In Florida, Japa- 
nese cane has proved to be one of the cheapest sources of 
silage. It may also be harvested and cured like corn fodder. 
It is most nutritious if allowed to stand until the danger of 
frost appears. The yield of Japanese cane in Florida has 
varied from 5 to 27 tons per acre. 

Silos did not come into much use in the Tropics until quite 
recently. Their importance, however, is gradually increasing. 
In Hawaii, for example, many silos have been built the past 
5 years. These silos are of various types, some of them being 
constructed of reen forced concrete, while others are in the 
form of pit silos. A great variety of material has been used 
for silage, including alfalfa, cowpeas, sorghum, corn, sweet 
potato vines, Para grass, various other grasses, and even 
prickly pear. On the Island of Lanai some success has been 



LEGUMES AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS 321 

had in making a mixed silage composed of prickly pear and 
wild grasses. The slabs of the prickly pear furnished moisture 
and obviated the necessity of using water which would have 
been required if wild grasses had been used alone. During 
the process of fermentation it was found that the spines on 
the prickly pear softened and became flexible and leathery. 



CHAPTER XXI 

LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS IN THE TROPICS 

The live-stock industry of tropical countries differs in many 
respects from the same industry In cold climates. In general, 
live stock is of less commercial importance in tropical coun- 
tries as compared with the values of plant products. While 
nearly all tropical countries abound in animals which are suit- 
able for various domestic purposes, there has never been, until 
recently, any great organized effort to develop the various 
phases of live stock along commercial lines. Travelers who 
are familiar with the various improved breeds of live stock 
are ordinarily impressed rather unfavorably with the appear- 
ance of the domestic animals which they find in the Tropics. 
Many newcomers from cold climates believe that a great re- 
form should be started in this matter and that this reform 
should at once involve the importation of superior sires of 
our improved breeds of stock for the improvement and breed- 
ing up of tropical live stock. Enthusiasm of this form, how- 
ever, should not be allowed to carry one away to extreme 
measures, for the reason that the breeds of live stock now 
found in the Tropics have come about as a natural adjust- 
ment to tropical climates and are likely to withstand the cli- 
mate and give a better account of themselves than would 
the improved breeds imported from cold climates. Numer- 
ous blunders have been made in the attempt at the wholesale 
and sudden reformation of the live stock industry of the 
Tropics. These blunders have invariably been expensive and 
discouraging. The common breeds of live stock when trans- 
ported to tropical climates fall a prey to various diseases to 

322 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 323 

which they are highly susceptible, or are unable to thrive and 
yield a profit to the owners under the conditions of feed and 
pasturage which prevail in most tropical countries. In the 
improvement of animal industry in the Tropics, therefore, it 
is perhaps wise to proceed very slowly and to admit that 
perhaps one important reason for the existence of the present 
tropical breeds of cattle is their superior adaptability to the 
conditions under which they must live. 

DAIRYING 

It may be well to take Hawaii as an example of the con- 
ditions which must be met in carrying on the dairy industry 
in tropical climates. There are certain obvious advantages 
in such climates over cold climates. Green feed, for example, 
can be grown the year round. Alfalfa will mature a crop 
every month, and in unusually favorable years 13 crops may 
be grown per year. This furnishes, of course, an abundance 
of excellent green material for milk production. Alfalfa is 
by no means the only crop which may be grown for green 
feeding to dairy cows. Sorghums, Para grass, corn, and a 
great variety of forage grasses may be grown as soiling crops 
for dairy cows. In many localities it appears not to be neces- 
sary to produce hay in order to get fairly satisfactory results 
in milk yield. 

In the neighborhood of sugar plantations, endless quanti- 
ties of cane tops are available for green feed at the cut- 
ting season. At higher altitudes some of the smaller va- 
rieties of sugar cane, particularly the Japanese cane, may be 
grown specifically as a cattle feed. Sugar cane may be read- 
ily used as a silage crop and makes an excellent and palatable 
silage. 

In the matter, therefore, of green fodder the advantage lies 
all with the Tropics as compared with cold climates. In al- 
most every other respect, however, the Tropics are at a dis- 



324. TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

advantage in the matter of milk production. Cows give less 
milk in tropical climates. It is rare that cows of the best 
breeding give more than 5,000 pounds of milk per year in a 
tropical climate. The yield is more likely to be from 4 to 
7 quarts per day. Moreover, all grains are higher in price 
than in cold climates and cultivation of the soil and the pro- 
duction of green crops are more expensive than is the case 
in any of the well known dairy districts of the United States. 
The prevalence of insect pests, particularly the horn fly, is 
another large disadvantage of the Tropics. The horn fly pre- 
vails in many tropical countries in numbers unheard of in 
the dairy sections of the mainland, and the constant annoy- 
ance of these pests helps to reduce the condition and the milk 
yields of dairy cows. In consequence of these various disad- 
vantages, the cost of producing milk in the Tropics is con- 
siderably higher than in cold cHmates. The same tendency 
may be observed on the mainland of the United States, milk 
costing more and more as one proceeds from the North to 
the South. In Honolulu, for example, it is questionable 
whether the dairyman can make a reasonable profit on sani- 
tary milk delivered to the consumer at a lower price than 15 
cents per quart. 

It must be remembered, however, that tropical countries 
do not depend for their milk upon the dairy breeds of cattle 
with which we are familiar. In fact, most of the milk used 
by the inhabitants of the Tropics does not come from the 
ordinary humpless, taurine cattle with which we are familiar. 
In India, Asia Minor, and Africa, milk is obtained from the 
zebu, the water buffalo, sheep, goat, and mare. The water 
buffalo, or carabao, as it is known in the Philippines, gives 
a large yield of milk of a fairly high fat content. In a num- 
ber of localities, some effort has been made to improve the 
milking qualities of the buffalo by the ordinary methods of 
selective breeding. Considerable success has been achieved 
in this work. In Poona, India, for example, a strain of buffalo 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 325 

was obtained which yielded 40 quarts of milk per day of high 
fat content. Even with this enormous milk yield, however, 
the animals were not considered economic for commercial 
dairy purposes. Their feeding capacity was found to be far 
greater than their milk-yielding capacity and the cost of 
maintaining the animals on rations which would allow the 
continued production of high milk yield proved to be pro- 
hibitive. 

The zebu yield, for the most part, 2 to 10 quarts of milk 
daily with a fat content of about 4.5 per cent. Hybrids be- 
tween the zebu and taurine cattle sometimes give even less 
milk. In Egypt and quite generally in tropical Africa, the 
zebu is used as a work and draft animal and the milk which 
may be obtained is only a secondary consideration. Under 
such conditions,, it would be unreasonable to expect any high 
milk yield. Little or no effort has ever been made to improve 
the milk-yielding capacity of the zebu for the reason, as just 
indicated, that this animal is everywhere considered of prime 
importance as a work animal. Throughout Egypt and tropical 
Africa also, goats' milk is widely used. Under tropical con- 
ditions, the milch goat yields from 3 to 5 quarts of milk per 
day. Goat milk is also extensively used in Cuba, Porto Rico, 
Central America, South America, Malta, Cyprus, southern 
Europe, Asia Minor, and quite generally throughout the Trop- 
ics. As is well known also, these animals are driven along 
the streets of the towns and milked before the door of the 
customer. The customer is thus assured of a perfectly fresh 
milk supply, but this method of delivering milk does not lend 
itself to the development of any large commercial dairy in- 
dustry. In fact, there seems to be no such insistent demand 
for commercial dairying in the Tropics as in the colder cli- 
mates ; the per capita consumption of milk is less, and the mod- 
ern extensive development of the condensed milk industry 
offers a fairly satisfactory milk supply at prices with which 
the dairymen in the Tropics could not compete. 



S26 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

BEEF CATTLE 

The term cattle has been rather widely and loosely used 
by various writers in referring to the development of animal 
industry in the Tropics. The term is here used to mean the 
collective group of familiar breeds of beef cattle which form 
the basis of the commercial beef industry in the great beef- 
producing countries of America and Europe. The term cattle, 
as used in India, refers, of course, to the zebu or Brahmin 
cattle. 

The almost universal presence of the zebu and buffalo in 
the Tropics and their great resistance to tropical diseases has 
made it seem unnecessary in many of the tropical countries to 
experiment with the breeds of humpless cattle with which we 
are familiar. Nevertheless, certain tropical countries have 
offered unusually favorable conditions for the commercial de- 
velopment of a beef cattle industry based upon the common 
beef breeds, such as Hereford, Shorthorn, Angus, Devon, etc. 
The cattle industry of Hawaii, for example, is fairly well de- 
veloped. The largest ranch in the Territory is devoted chiefly 
to the production of Herefords, the manager of which has be- 
come a rather noted breeder. Another ranch has found great- 
est profit in raising Devons and has gradually built up a herd 
of pure-bred Devons of somewhat unusual merit. One or 
two other ranches have preferred to devote their energies to 
Shorthorns and have succeeded excellently well with this 
breed. According to the most recent statistics, the number of 
cattle in Brazil is about 9,000,000; in Mexico, 5,000,000; and 
in Uruguay, 8,000,000. Neither the zebu nor hybrid zebus 
have ever acquired any great importance in the cattle industry 
of South America. Fairly good representatives of the ordi- 
nary beef breeds of cattle are to be found throughout Cen- 
tral America, South America, and the West Indies. In the 
West Indies, however, most cattle contain some trace of zebu 
blood. From India, the zebu spread eastward through Siam 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 327 

and Cochin China to southern China and the Malay States 
and neighboring islands. It was also carried westward 
through Persia, Arabia, and all of tropical Africa. There 
are, therefore, very few taurine or humpless cattle in any of 
these countries. Apparent mixtures of the zebu and taurine 
cattle are found throughout tropical countries and these hy- 
brid strains are probably of great antiquity. There have been 
frequent importations of taurine cattle also, particularly in re- 
cent years, into all parts of the Tropics and these animals 
have been used to some extent in crossing with the native races 
of zebus or hybrid zebus. 

In the Belgian Congo, satisfactory results have recently 
been obtained from the introduction of Belgian and Brittany 
cattle. These animals were used for crossing on the native 
cattle and the hybrids show not only a remarkable degree of 
resistance to tropical diseases but a rather better form and 
milk-yielding capacity than those of the native cattle. Simi- 
lar importations are being made into nearly all tropical coun- 
tries in the attempt to improve the native strains of cattle. It 
should be remembered in connection with any discussion of 
the cattle industry of the Tropics that the inhabitants of 
the Tropics look upon cattle as work anirpals more than as 
a source of meat or milk. For this reason the demand for 
beef and milk in the tropical countries is immeasurably lower 
in proportion to the number of inhabitants than in cold cli- 
mates. The Buddhist and Brahmin population are almost 
strictly vegetarian and consider their cattle as sacred. In In- 
dia, therefore, aside from the British or other temporary resi- 
dents, the Mohammedans are the chief meat eaters and they 
eat zebu, buffalo, camel, and other food animals. 

ZEBU (Bos Indicus) 

The zebu is readily distinguished from taurine cattle by 
the possession of a hump on the withers, usually drooping 



S28 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

ears, and commonly a white ring around the fetlock. The 
zebu is also called Indian cattle, Indian ox, Brahmin cattle, 
sacred cattle of India, and by other names. The color of 
the zebu may be white, brindle, tawny, spotted with brown or 
black, dark with a bluish tinge, and of numerous other shades. 
There are all possible horn variations, even the condition of 
hornlessness. The zebu weighs up to 1,500 pounds. The milk 
yield in all cases is low. The zebu is readily crossed with 
taurine cattle and the hybrids are fertile. 

The zebu and even hybrids, with no more than an eighth of 
zebu blood, have commonly been found to be immune to Texas 
fever. The hide is thick, the hair rather sparse, and cattle 
ticks do not readily attach themselves. For this reason im- 
portations of Brahmin cattle have been made in Texas, Flor- 
ida, and elsewhere in the United States for the purpose of 
developing a strain of cattle immune to Texas fever. The zebu 
probably does not occur anywhere as a wild species. It has 
spread, however, throughout the Tropics in a bewildering 
variety of races — small, large, with large hump, almost with- 
out hump, and in almost endless color patterns. Many of 
these forms, as already indicated, are probably hybrids be- 
tween the zebu and taurine cattle. The immense importance 
of the zebu in British India may be gathered from the fact 
that according to admittedly imperfect census returns there 
are at least 95,000,000 of these cattle in that country. 

A pure strain of zebu was recently introduced into the Bel- 
gian Congo, where it was acclimatized without difficulty. In 
Persia, most "cattle" are zebus, although there are a few 
European cattle and hybrids to be seen occasionally. Arabian 
cattle are all zebus. In a strain of zebu near Aden, an un- 
usually high milk yield has been developed. In India, there 
are very few cattle without humps. The zebus or Brahmin 
cattle are used for oxen in teams, as pack and riding animals, 
and for milk. In Ceylon, the zebu is used on freight wagons 
and farm implements. The zebu is also commonly used for 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 329 

the same purpose in Burma, Sumatra, and Java. In Porto 
Rico, nearly all cattle have some zebu blood and the same 
should be said for Central America and West Indies, including 
Cuba. 

Throughout tropical Africa, from the Cape to Cairo, the 
zebu prevails in a great variety of forms but is largely re- 
placed by European cattle in Cape Colony. Some of these 
forms are practically without hump, particularly the Egyp- 
tian cattle. In Madagascar, there are at least two well recog- 
nized races of zebu. In the French colonies of West Africa, 
there are about 1,500,000 zebus and this animal is considered 
of fundamental importance as a source of power for agricul- 
tural development. As a work animal the zebu has every- 
where shown his superiority over taurine cattle, at least in 
tropical countries. This is due not only to his greater resist- 
ance to tropical diseases but to a generally more perfect adap- 
tation to tropical conditions. The zebu ox will keep in good 
condition where the taurine ox will be miserably poor. The 
zebu appears to be less nervous and stronger and more endur- 
ing, at least under tropical conditions. In Cuba, for example, 
a special effort is being made at present to improve the size 
and excellence of the work oxen of the country. Practi- 
cally all heavy hauling, plowing, and other farm operations are 
done by oxen. These oxen are crosses between the zebu and 
Jerseys or other breeds of cattle. Their ability to do hard 
work under varying tropical conditions is sufficiently attested 
by the fact that practically every ox team in Cuba is in ex- 
cellent physical condition. 

Likewise in Porto Rico a determined effort has been made 
to improve the native cattle by crossing with zebu blood. The 
purpose of this work, as with similar work in Cuba, is to in- 
crease the working efficiency of the draft ox. Pure-bred 
zebu sires were crossed upon Shorthorn, Hereford, and 
Brahmin cows. The Shorthorn and Hereford blood appears 
to broaden the frame of the hybrid somewhat and give more 



330 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

depth of body. The Porto Rico Experiment Station has already 
obtained 300 head of progeny in these crossing experiments 
and has had opportunity to observe the habits and char- 
acters of the hybrid animals. In all cases the zebu appears to 
add constitutional vigor, active movement, strong bone, straight 
legs, and hard hoofs. The hybrids have been found to be 
almost completely immune to tick infestation and show a 
remarkable natural adaptation to tropical heat and short 
pasturage. 

BUFFALO (Bos Bubalus) 

The buffalo of India and the Oriental Tropics is now an 
important domesticated animal in Spain, Italy, southeastern 
Europe, Africa, India, Burma, the Philippine Islands, China, 
Formosa, Hawaii, and various Pacific Islands. The buffalo 
is a large powerful animal, weighing up to 2,000 pounds or 
more and standing about six feet high at the withers. The 
spread of the horns is often as much as six feet. The horns 
are flattened and curve upward and backward. The body is 
nearly hairless and of a bluish-black color. The buffalo, or 
carabao as they are called in the Philippines, are strong, slow, 
lazy, and willful. They do not endure cold weather or dry 
climate and must be maintained in the neighborhood of streams 
or standing water in which they may wallow. The buffalo is 
intimately associated with the rice industry. Horses and 
mules do not endure working in the mud as well as do the 
buffalo. In fact, the buffalo not only endures this sort of 
work, but appears to prefer working in the water and mud 
rather than on dry land. The buffalo serves as a powerful 
work animal up to the age of 20 to 30 years. 

Outside of the Buddhist and Brahmin communities, the buf- 
falo meat is eaten, and while the meat of all buffalo oxen is 
reasonably tough, the flavor is not particularly unpleasant. 
The milk yield of the buffalo is larger than that of the zebu 
or other cattle under tropical conditions. The fat content 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 331 

of the milk is about 7^ per cent, and the casein nearly 6 per 
cent. 

According to the most recent available statistics there are 
about 17,000,000 domesticated buffalo in British India. Many- 
breeds have been developed in various localities, but none of 
these breeds varies in any pronounced manner from the wild 
form of the buffalo or from the general run of the domesti- 
cated forms. The buffalo was introduced from Italy into the 
Belgian Congo in 191 1, but this importation was unfortunate 
on account of the prevalence of barbone, which disease car- 
ried off nearly all of the buffalo. In the Philippines and else- 
where, tremendous losses have been suffered from time to 
time from rinderpest. In 1902, for example, about 492,000 
carabao died of rinderpest in the Philippine Islands. When 
it is remembered that this animal serves in the Philippines as 
the main source of power, meat, and milk, it may readily be 
understood that this outbreak of rinderpest was little less 
than a calamity. 

The African buffalo (Bos caffer) has never been domesti- 
cated. The Indian buffalo, however, has been widely imported 
into Africa and has become a familiar work animal in that 
country. The gayal {Bos frontalis), a. native of upland India 
and Indo-China, has been domesticated in the northeastern 
portions of India, Assam, and China. This animal is char- 
acterized by its short limbs, short horns, which stand almost 
straight out laterally, and extremely wide forehead between 
the horns. The milk yield is low but rich in fat. The milk 
has never been used very extensively but the meat is eaten, es- 
pecially in Indo-China. The gayal is readily domesticated and 
makes a powerful ox but has not been widely used for work 
purposes. The color is usually brown but occasionally white. 
Crosses between the gayal and ordinary cattle are fertile. The 
gaur (Bos gaurus), a native of India, is perhaps the largest 
of all wild cattle. It is closely related to the gayal, which it 
somewhat resembles in appearance, but has never been domes- 



332 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

ticated. The banteng (Bos sondaicus) is a common work 
animal of Burma, Malaya, Borneo, Java, Sunda Islands, and 
neighboring countries. This ox is much like the gayal, but 
its horns are slenderer and rounder and are curved upward 
and back. The banteng is domesticated in largest numbers in 
Java, where it is extensively crossed with the zebu and other 
cattle. The banteng is an inferior draft animal but the meat 
is considered to be good. 

HORSES AND MULES 

The horse and mule industry has never in any tropical coun- 
try attained the importance which it holds in temperate cli- 
mates. This is due partly to the fact that horses and mules 
have been unable to resist some of the tropical diseases or 
the peculiar conditions of the tropical climate. On the other 
hand, in many parts of the Tropics, horses and mules are 
practically replaced for certain purposes by buffalo, zebu, 
camel, elephant, and more recently by the wide use of power 
machinery. In those parts of the Tropics, like Hawaii, where 
tropical animal diseases do not prevail, horses and mules may 
be reared and used under conditions practically identical with 
those which prevail on the mainland of the United States. 
On many of the sugar plantations, horse and mule power is 
extensively used where steam and gasoline power are not 
economically applied. The importance of the horse in the 
Tropics everywhere increases with the increasing control of 
the Tropics by the white man. 

In the Belgian Congo, experiments with Senegal ponies 
indicate that this breed is well adapted for use in the Congo. 
The so-called Sandalwood pony of Java has also given a good 
account of itself in the Congo. Belgian horses have been used 
in the Belgian Congo for the production of mules but are 
considered too heavy for draft purposes. Russian horses, in- 
troduced into the Congo, have proved of great superiority for 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 333 

saddle purposes. In mule-breeding experiments in the Bel- 
gian Congo, it has been found that the Senegal jack is readily- 
acclimatized, while with the Poitou and Italian jack, trouble 
was frequently experienced. 

In the French colonies of western Africa, the horse is the 
most important animal for riding and driving. Arabian and 
Barb breeds are preferred. Horses are extensively bred 
throughout these French colonies, and a large percentage even 
of the natives in Senegal, Sudan, and Guinea are the proud 
owners of saddle horses. In Dahomey, on the other hand, 
the horse is not a common driving or riding animal. In the 
French West Africa colonies, the government has established 
studs and breeding stations at a number of convenient loca- 
tions for the purpose of giving help and encouragement in 
the improvement of horses throughout the territory. Among 
the Sudanese, the ass is a symbol of captivity. The chiefs of 
these natives, therefore, never own jacks but many breeds 
of jacks are used by the common natives. Mules are generally 
popular and widely employed for work purposes throughout 
French Africa. 

The thoroughbred horse originally came from the Ara- 
bian or Libyan native horse of northern Africa, and a similar 
type of horse prevails throughout Arabia, Turkey, Persia, 
and neighboring states. Not much success has been had with 
horses in southern India. In the native states further north, 
horses are a common sight, but are mostly of pony size and 
with Arabian blood. Ponies are extremely numerous in Ben- 
gal, the Federated Malay States, and Java. In Java, the favor- 
ite pony is the so-called Sandalwood pony. The horses of 
Borneo and the PhiHppine Islands are much like those in Java. 
In Madagascar, the horse apparently does not thrive well and 
the natives use oxen for the most part. In Mexico and Cen- 
tral America, the saddle type of horse is the one in greatest 
demand. In various parts of tropical South America, the 
horse is becoming a more and more important animal for work 



334 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

and pleasure uses, and in Brazil there is a quite unusual inter- 
est in horse breeding. 

The African ass, the source of the domestic ass, still roams 
wild in various parts of Africa and quite generally in tropical 
countries it escapes and "goes wild" again. Mules are gen- 
erally used in tropical America for work purposes but to a 
less extent in the African and Oriental Tropics. In the ex- 
perience which has been had in the Tropics with mules, no 
reason has been developed for considering the mule more im- 
mune to diseases than is the horse. 

Zebras have been tamed and bred in captivity and main- 
tained as work animals in a number of tropical countries. 
Zebras are not susceptible to tsetse-fly disease and therefore 
give some promise of becoming work animals where the horse 
and mule are exterminated by tropical diseases. Zebroids, or 
the crosses between zebra stallions and mares, have been pro- 
duced in a number of localities and have given good accounts 
of themselves. In making these crosses draft breeds of mares 
are used to produce work zebroids, and thoroughbred mares 
in the production of driving and riding zebroids. Thus far 
the most important breeding work in the production of ze- 
broids has been done by Ewart in England and Baron de 
Parana in Brazil. The consensus of opinion of those who 
have had practical experience with zebroids is that these ani- 
mals are very tractable, graceful, and of great endurance. 

SWINE 

Like the other familiar domestic animals of Europe and 
northern America, the hog in the Tropics shows an extremely 
irregular distribution, due to local conditions and customs. 
Throughout the Pacific and South Sea Islands, including Ha- 
waii, and particularly in southern China and Brazil, the hog 
industry is an important one and pork constitutes a large 
feature of the diet. Elsewhere in the Tropics, the pig is a less 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 335 

familiar and less important animal. In Hawaii, the hog in- 
dustry has been fairly well developed, particularly in the hands 
of the Chinese and Japanese who are extremely fond of pork. 
The breeds in most common use there are Berkshire, Duroc- 
Jersey, and Hampshire. Wild hogs are found in the islands 
and bring approximately as high a price as improved breeds. 
These wild hogs are, of course, merely the descendants of do- 
mesticated hogs which escaped and are taking care of them- 
selves in the mountains. Pigs of Spanish breeds are found 
throughout French West Africa, but all hogs are, of course, 
taboo to all Semitic and Islamitic races in Africa or wherever 
they may occur. 

The Chinese are constant pork eaters and the swine indus- 
try in China has been widely developed for ages. Certain 
breeds peculiar to China have been developed there, particu- 
larly in southern China, where a breed of white color is pre- 
ferred. The hog industry has been extensively developed in 
the Island of Hainan, and Chinese pigs are also raised on a 
large scale in Sumatra, Java, and the Philippines. In Egypt, 
Tunis, and Algeria pigs are raised only by Europeans. In 
eastern Africa there is little development of the pig industry, 
except in Mozambique. 

SHEEP 

The sheep industry is far more important in some of the 
strictly tropical countries than is perhaps commonly supposed. 
In Hawaii, there are a number of ranches devoted chiefly 
to sheep, the most important breeds being Shropshire, Merino, 
and Tunis. On the Island of Molokai, considerable attention 
has been given to Tunis sheep on account of their adaptability 
to the local conditions and their somewhat unusual merit as 
mutton producers. On the Island of Lanai one or two types 
of Australian Merino have been tried with satisfactory results. 
The most serious disease from which sheep suffer in Ha- 
waii is scab, and this is, of course, readily controlled by dip- 



336 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

ping. Horn flies and flesh flies give considerable trouble from 
their attacks upon wounds which sheep may receive. 

The sheep industry of Brazil is an important part of the 
animal husbandry of that great country. There are now 
nearly 2,000,000 sheep in Brazil. The fat-rumped sheep are 
widely raised in the warmer parts of Asia Minor. In Tur- 
kestan and neighboring countries the broad-tailed sheep is a 
favorite breed. The caracul sheep is a race of broad-tailed 
sheep which is recently becoming popular in the United States 
for its mutton and for its fleece which resembles Persian 
lamb or Astrakhan wool. Mutton is the favorite meat of the 
Hindus and throughout India sheep are extensively raised. 
Most of them are small and resemble goats in appearance. 
Sheep are not important domestic animals in Indo-China, Ma- 
laya, Formosa, or the Philippines. In Egypt, on the other 
hand, the sheep industry is well developed. It has been found 
in Egypt that sheep furnish much help in keeping down weeds 
and grass along irrigation ditches, and in many localities they 
are raised primarily for this purpose and secondarily for their 
meat. Maned and broad-tailed sheep are quite commonly 
raised in Abyssinia and East Africa, while the Mauritanian 
and Macina breeds are found in considerable abundance in 
the French African colonies. In Central America and the 
West Indies, sheep are yielding their position to cattle and 
the sheep industry is therefore on the wane. 

GOATS 

Man has made use of goats since the dawn of history. They 
have constituted an important source of meat, milk, and hair 
for the production of certain fabrics in both tropical and sub- 
tropical countries. Hawaiian experiments with goats have 
been unfortunate. On account of their eminent ability to care 
for themselves in tropical countries they have escaped from 
domestication and run wild on most of the islands of the 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 337 

Hawaiian group. On some of these islands, particularly La- 
nai and Kahoolawe, they have increased to such numbers as 
to become a veritable pest, destroying grass and brush, and 
greatly interfering with the growth of forests at higher alti- 
tudes. The destruction of vegetation by goats on these islands 
has led to the development of semi-desert conditions under 
which wind erosion takes place to an enormous extent. At 
frequent intervals goat drives are organized by hunters for 
the purpose of exterminating these wild goats. Some of the 
drives have resulted in the capture and destruction of thou- 
sands of goats. 

In the Philippines, there are but few goats and these are 
raised for their milk. The goat is an important domestic 
animal in almost all parts of Africa. Throughout Egypt the 
goat is raised for both milk and fleece. The Angora goat 
thrives excellently well in Algeria. The dwarf goat occurs in 
the Sudan, and throughout Guinea, the Congo, Angola, and 
East Africa the goat is a familiar domestic animal. The 
goat is also an important animal in certain parts of Mexico 
where it is raised both for milk and for fleece. In tropical 
South America, the goat is of minor importance, except in 
Brazil. Experiments with milch goats in the Belgian Congo 
have thus far been rather unsatisfactory. They do not appear 
to become acclimatized readily or to endure the heat of that 
country. 

CAMEL 

The dromedary, one-humped, or Arabian camel is referred 
by zoologists to Camelus dromedarius and the " Bactrian or 
two-humped camel to C. bactrianus. The two forms, how- 
ever, have repeatedly crossed and some authorities consider 
them races of a single species. The camel will readily find 
a living on brush, leaves, spiny salt bushes, and other coarse 
plants of little use to other domestic animals. The camel does 
not well endure a humid atmosphere but will endure excel- 



338 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

lently well both extreme heat and the cold nights of the des- 
ert. As is well known, camels are chiefly used for riding and 
packing, the two-humped camel being used mostly for pack- 
ing. A good riding camel will make a speed of five or six 
miles an hour with a reasonable rest at mid-day and will travel 
1 6 out of the 24 hours, thus making 80 miles a day. In 
Egypt, it is customary to begin working the camel at the age 
of three years. He reaches full strength, however, only at 
six years when he may have attained a weight of 900 to 1,400 
pounds. A mature camel will carry a pack of 200 to 400 
pounds or even more. 

The color of the Egyptian breeds of camel is brown, black, 
black and brown, or white. In the Cairo abattoir, camels are 
slaughtered in large numbers for human food. In the ex- 
perience of this abattoir, it has been found that the dressed 
weight of camels is about 55 per cent, of the live weight. In 
Syria, the packload of camels is commonly 500 to 650 pounds. 
The ability of camels to go without water has been somewhat 
exaggerated. It has been found best to water them once 
a day and not to keep them continuously at hard work in 
hot weather for more than 48 hours at a stretch. In 
Arabia, camels are said to travel sometimes for five days with- 
out water. 

The Bactrian camel is not used in Arabia, Syria, Palestine, 
or North Africa. In these countries, the dromedary or Ara- 
bian camel is the only breed to be seen. Statistics regarding 
the number of camels used for economic purposes are rather 
meager and incomplete. There are said to be about 2,cxdo,ooo 
camels in Somaliland. The camel is used extensively as a 
pack animal in the Island of Malta and in West Australia. In 
British India there are about 450,000 camels used for riding 
and packing. 

An experiment was begun in 1856 in the use of camels in 
Texas and elsewhere in the southwestern part of the United 
States. The results were in every respect satisfactory but 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 339 

during the Civil War the camels were neglected and the ex- 
periment was allowed to lapse. 



LLAMA AND ALPACA 

These interesting cameloid ruminants of South America are 
commonly supposed to be domesticated races of the wild gua- 
naco and vicuna. The alpaca is of more compact build and 
has a heavier coat of hair. The alpaca is mostly black in color, 
while the llama is commonly white with brown or black mark- 
ings. The alpaca is considered decidedly of the more value 
and its long, fine, silky wool of metallic luster is much prized 
for use in certain fabrics. In 1914, the United States imported 
about i,ooo,cx)0 pounds of alpaca wool. The alpaca extends 
from the Equator to Cape Horn and the total production of 
alpaca hair amounts to several million pounds annually. Thus 
far all attempts to acclimatize the alpaca in Europe or Australia 
have failed. This animal is also used to some extent for meat. 

The llama is the only native work animal of South America. 
The males are used as pack animals and are commonly made 
to carry from 80 to 90 pounds in the pack. The females are 
shorn for their wool which is decidedly inferior to that of the 
alpaca. Like the latter the llama is also used as a food animal. 

ELEPHANT 

Zoologists distinguish between the African and Asiatic ele- 
phant. The male African elephant stands about 10 feet high 
at the withers at maturity and weighs 4 or 5 tons. The female 
is smaller than in the Asiatic species. The male Asiatic ele- 
phant is about 8 or 9 feet in height at the withers and weighs 
2 or 3 tons. 

The elephant becomes fully mature at about 25 years of age 
and lives to be 125 to 150 years old. He may be bred in cap- 
tivity without great difficulty but most domesticated elephants 



340 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

have been caught young and tamed and trained. They have 
been used since the earliest times in war, in state processions, 
and for all kinds of labor. The elephant is an exceedingly 
clever and tractable work animal and his great strength makes 
him a very valuable source of power in lumbering and heavy 
freight operations. 

The African elephant formerly existed in immense numbers 
but is now much reduced, largely for the reason that both 
males and females possess tusks and are killed for their ivory. 
In the Belgian Congo an elephant training station has been 
established at Api. The African elephant appears to be as 
easy to train as the Asiatic species. In domestication the Af- 
rican elephant stands about 7^ feet at the withers at the age 
of 15 years. No trouble has been experienced in the Congo 
in training them and they have proved eminently satisfactory 
for all kinds of work. In the Congo, elephants have been 
extensively used for carrying bunches of fruit of the oil palm 
to oil mills and for miscellaneous work. The exportation of 
ivory from the Ivory Coast, Sudan, Senegal, Guinea, and else- 
where is still of considerable proportions. Statistics on the 
number of elephants used for economic purposes are ex- 
tremely fragmentary, but in Siam there are reported to be 
more than 3,000 elephants in domestication. 

POULTRY 

The jungle fowl, the wild ancestor of our chickens, occurs 
abundantly throughout India, Burma, Malaya, Indo-China, 
Java, the Philippine Islands, and neighboring tropical coun- 
tries. Some or all of the various kinds of domestic poultry are 
raised in all tropical countries and most of the different kinds 
of poultry thrive fairly well in tropical climates. 

In Hawaii, no unusual difficulties have been met with in 
raising chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea fowls, pea fowls, 
and pigeons. All of these kinds of poultry may and do escape 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 341 

from domestication into the woods. In this wild condition, 
they readily maintain themselves in considerable numbers and 
thus furnish sport in hunting. Wild turkeys, wild chickens, 
and wild pea fowls are quite commonly met with at the higher 
elevations on the Hawaiian Islands. 

The so-called native breeds of chickens are small in most 
tropical countries, weighing up to about three pounds. More- 
over, they are commonly of poor flavor, and the white settlers 
have everywhere carried with them into the Tropics improved 
breeds of poultry and with considerable success. All domestic 
ducks seem to have descended from the wild Mallard and 
musk ducks and are now found everywhere in the Tropics. 
Domestic geese came from the wild graylag goose of Europe 
and the Asiatic goose, and descendants of these two types are 
found in domestication in all parts of the Tropics. Apparent 
hybrids between these two types have been met with in India 
and Africa. 

The guinea fowl is a native of Africa and readily makes 
itself at home in any part of the Tropics. The pea fowl is a 
native of Eastern Asia, particularly India, China, and the ad- 
jacent islands. It readily adapts itself to tropical conditions in 
all parts of the world and occurs in both a wild and domestic 
form in nearly all tropical countries. The turkey is a native 
of the United States, Mexico, and Central America, but has 
now been quite generally introduced into tropical countries, 
where it thrives excellently well. 

OSTRICHES 

There are at least three common species of ostriches in 
Africa, one characteristic of North Africa, a second of South 
Africa, and a third of Somaliland. The ostrich reaches a 
height of 6 to 'jYz feet. In the wild state the female lays about 
24 eggs. The ostrich industry is now carried on in the Trans- 
vaal, Cape Colony, Natal, Southwest Africa, Algeria, Tunis, 



342 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Egypt, Sudan, Madagascar, Australia, New Zealand, South 
America, and the United States. 

Commercial ostrich farming began in Oudtshoorn, South 
Africa, in i860. From this date on the industry increased 
rather rapidly, and at present Cape Colony has over 1,000,000 
ostriches, Australia, 2,000, and the United States about 10,000 
ostriches. The industry is important in the various other 
countries named above, but statistics on their numbers are 
wanting or unreliable. 

South Africa in 1913 exported 1,023,000 pounds of ostrich 
feathers at a value of $14,000,000. In England, a campaign 
was started against ostrich farming on the ground that the 
plucking of the feathers was an act of cruelty. Ultimately, 
an antiplumage bill was passed in 1913 and at about the 
same time ostrich feathers began to go out of style in the 
United States. This country imported $6,250,000 worth of 
ostrich feathers in 1913, while the importation fell to the value 
of only $3,900,000 in 191 4. 

In the United States ostrich eggs are hatched almost en- 
tirely by artificial incubation, the incubation period being six 
weeks. About 95 per cent, of the eggs are fertile. In South 
Africa, the eggs are hatched chiefly by the parent birds, but 
also by incubators. The domestic habits of an ostrich family 
are quite interesting. Sometimes the hen ostrich sits on the 
eggs by day and the cock by night, while occasionally the 
cock does nearly all of the incubating. The cock ostrich is 
extremely pugnacious, even dangerously so, during the hatch- 
ing season. 

Ostriches begin breeding at the age of three or four years 
and continue to the age of 20 years or more. In Oudtshoorn, 
the common practice is to pull the first feathers at the age 
of 8 or 9 months. Six months later the primary feathers 
are cut oflf and two months later the quills of the cut feathers 
are pulled, thus giving three plumages in about 6 months and 
about one pound of feathers per bird. 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 343 

Ostriches live to an age of 50 to 60 years. A great amount 
of breeding and selection work has been done with ostriches, 
especially in Cape Colony where fine breeding birds have 
brought as high as $4,000 a pair. An investigation of factors 
which influence quality of plumage has been carried on for 
many years in South Africa and a similar study is now under 
way in Arizona. 

Alfalfa pasture or alfalfa hay has everywhere proved to be 
the best form of roughage for ostriches. A good ostrich ra- 
tion contains about three pounds of alfalfa hay and five pounds 
of corn or barley per day. As is commonly known also, os- 
triches will eat all kinds of waste material. The egg yield under 
domestication varies from 30 to 100 eggs per year and the eggs 
weigh from 2^ to 4 pounds apiece. In South Africa, caponiz- 
ing of ostriches has been practiced to some extent with the 
idea that capons would fight less and would thus not be so 
likely to injure their feathers. The meat of ostrich capons is 
frequently eaten and is said to be somewhat of a delicacy. 
Incidentally in connection with the study of domesticated 
ostriches, some of them have been trained for riding or driv- 
ing, hitched to a sulky. 

The South American ostrich, also called nandu or rhea, was 
at one time killed in large numbers and its feathers sent to the 
United States. Recently a beginning has been made in do- 
mesticating this bird as a source of valuable feathers. Among 
the other tropical birds which furnish articles of commerce, 
mention should be made of the marabou stork and the aigret 
heron, both of which may be readily domesticated but which 
for the most part have been hunted in the wild condition. In 
parts of western Africa, the aigret heron was hunted almost 
to extermination, while no effort was being put forth to raise 
them in domestication. The French are beginning to protect 
the aigret in their African colonies with the result that the 
numbers of these birds are rapidly increasing. 



344 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

SILK 

Among the useful insects which occur in tropical countries 
it may be worth while briefly to consider the silkworm, bees, 
the lac insect, and the cochineal insect. According to Chinese 
records, the silk industry originated in China about 2600 B. C. 
From China it passed over to Korea, Japan, Constantinople 
(550 A, D.), and then throughout the countries where silk- 
worms are now raised. Both Chinese and Japanese use enor- 
mous quantities of silk and statistics on total production are 
not very reliable. In 1908, China produced 29,000,000 pounds 
of silk, Japan 25,000,000, India 10,000,000, the Levant, 5,- 
600,000, and Indo-China 2,400,000. The total world produc- 
tion for that year was about 77,000,000 pounds. 

The total exports of silk from the producing countries is 
now about 60,000,000 pounds, of which Japan exports 26,- 
000,000, China 19,000,000, Italy 7,800,000, the Levant 5,000,- 
000, British India 220,000 and Indo-China, 33,000. 

The United States imports about 25,000,000 pounds of silk 
annually. There is no likelihood, however, of the establish- 
ment of a commercial silk industry in the United States for 
the reason that hand labor is too expensive. The immense 
amount of hand work in silk culture makes cheap labor a neces- 
sity. Commercial silk production must therefore apparently be 
confined to regions where cheap labor is available, particularly 
China, Japan, Italy, and the Levant. 

The silk moth lays 300 to 700 eggs and the life cycle occu- 
pies about 65 days for each generation. About 2,200 pounds 
of mulberry leaves are required for the growth of the worms 
which hatch from one ounce of eggs. This of itself indicates 
the enormous amount of hand work connected with the in- 
dustry. Silk cocoons are gathered about 7 to 10 days after 
the beginning of the spinning. The length of the silk thread 
in a cocoon varies from 900 to 1,600 yards and cocoons com- 
monly weigh at the rate of 155 to 320 to the pound. The 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 345 

French, Belgians and Italians are introducing silk culture into 
their tropical colonies in a serious manner, and it is to be ex- 
pected that the production of raw silk will be greatly increased 
as the result of their efforts. 



BEES 

The Giant East Indian bee (Apis dorsatd) occurs generally 
on the continent of Asia and the adjacent tropical islands, in- 
cluding the Philippines. This bee builds huge combs often 
four feet thick and six feet long attached to ledges of rocks 
or to the branches of trees. Perhaps the smallest species of 
honey bee is A. Uorea, a native of the East Indies. This spe- 
cies builds a comb only three or four inches across. The 
common bee of southern Asia is A. indica. It is kept for 
commercial purposes in crude hives in various parts of the 
East Indies. The brood comb of this species is much smaller 
than is that of our familiar honey bee. 

The common honey bee, A. mellifica, including the common 
German, Italian, Cyprian, Egyptian, Carniolan, Tunisian, and 
other breeds, is found everywhere in the Tropics and escapes 
by swarming to form nests in trees in other locations. The 
honey produced in tropical countries is largely used locally, 
while the wax goes into the world's commerce. Beeswax is 
an important industry in many parts of the Tropics, as is ap- 
parent from the fact that French Guinea and Senegal exports 
about 200,000 pounds of beeswax annually. The United States 
imports about 1,500,000 pounds of beeswax per year. 

In Hawaii, a considerable development of the bee industry 
has taken place in recent years. The most important honey 
plant of the Territory is the algaroba which furnishes two 
crops of flowers annually. In all of the large forests of 
algaroba apiaries have been established at intervals so as to 
utilize the flowers most effectively. From Hawaii about 1,000 
tons of honey are exported annually and also an excellent, very 



346 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

light colored beeswax in constantly increasing amounts. A 
similar development in apiculture has taken place in Porto 
Rico, where the industry began in 1900 and increased to such 
an extent that the exportation of beeswax was 18,000 pounds 
in 1914, while honey was exported to the value of $70,000. 



SHELLAC 

Shellac is a resinous secretion of scale insects (Tachardia 
lacca and related species), and is formed as a continuous in- 
crustation on twigs infested with these insects. The material 
comes into commerce under a number of trade names. The 
term stick-lac is used in referring to the incrusted twigs re- 
moved from the tree without disturbing the incrustation of lac. 
Seed-lac is the term used for the granular lac scraped off from 
the twigs, while the term shellac is reserved for the pure lac 
melted and poured out on a cool surface in sheets. 

The best lac is obtained from lac insects when living on 
Schleichera trijuga or on Butea frondosa. The latter tree is 
so familiarly known in this connection that in India it is called 
the lac tree. 

The demand for lac is rapidly increasing. India produces 
about 15,000 tons annually, of which the United States uses 
about 6,000 tons. Shellac is used for a multitude of pur- 
poses, including electric insulation, gramophone records, seal- 
ing wax, polish for wood and metal, stiffening for hats, litho- 
graphic ink, in connection with the manufacture of painted 
pottery, and in innumerable other ways, especially in India. 
The industry is still largely in the hands of the natives of 
India and rights are sold to collect lac in government forests. 
The lac trees mentioned above are not the only ones upon 
which lac insects live. There is, in fact, a great variety of 
other trees upon which lac insects may produce a good quality 
of lac. The Department of Agriculture of India now gives 
instruction in the cultivation of lac, including the planting of 



LIVE STOCK AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 347 

special trees, the establishment of insect colonies on them, 
methods of pruning and scraping the lac, and other operations 
connected with the industry. At present there is a tendency, 
therefore, to make shellac production an agricultural industry 
rather than the mere haphazard collection of a wild by-prod- 
uct. The total output of shellac from India has an annual 
value of about $3,500,000 and a small shellac industry has been 
established in Ceylon. The average yield is about four to six 
pounds of stick-lac per tree. 



COCHINEAL 

The trade term cochineal signifies the bodies of a female 
scale insect known as Pseudococcus cacti which feeds on cer- 
tain species of cactus. These insects were originally culti- 
vated or cared for by the Indians of Mexico and Central 
America and were later introduced into the Canary Islands, 
Algeria, Java, Australia, and elsewhere. About 70,000 cochi- 
neal insects are required to make a pound of crude cochineal 
which yields 10 per cent, of pure dye. A few years ago the 
annual importation of cochineal into England from the Canary 
Islands amounted to 260,000 pounds, and in the eighties the 
United States imported 500,000 pounds of cochineal annually. 
The natural cochineal industry, however, like that of madder 
and indigo has been practically destroyed by the cheap aniline 
dyes manufactured in Germany. There is still quite an in- 
dustry in cochineal, however, in Oaxaca, Mexico, among 
the Indians who maintain plantations of the Nopal cactus for 
this purpose. These Indians carefully preserve colonies of 
the cochineal insect and distribute them upon the cactus. 
In Teneriffe the insects are cultivated on Opuntia ficus- 
indica. 

In harvesting this product the insects are scraped off, killed 
by plunging into hot water, and then dried. Cochineal is used 
not only as a pure dye but in the preparation of extremely valu- 



348 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

able pigments other than the pure cochineal. For example, 
cochineal mixed with gelatinous alumina forms the pigment 
known as lake. Carmine is a brilliant scarlet pigment precipi- 
tated from cochineal decoction by acids or animal gelatin. 



APPENDIX 

BOOKS AND PERIODICALS DEALING WITH TROPICAL 
AGRICULTURE 

There is a large mass of literature dealing with the general 
field of tropical agriculture or with special phases of this subject. 
It is perhaps desirable to give a brief list containing some of the 
more important of these books, particularly for reference purposes 
on the general subjects, or on particular countries or special phases 
of tropical agriculture. As will appear in consulting the lists of 
books and periodicals given below, the English, French, and Dutch 
have contributed most largely to this subject. 

REFERENCE BOOKS RELATING TO TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Adams, F, U. — 

Conquest of the Tropics. Under this title the author has pre- 
sented a general treatise on the banana industry, with espe- 
cial reference to the part which the United Fruit Company 
has played in the development of the banana business. 
(New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1914.) 
Belfort, R., and Hoyer, A. J. — 

All about Coconuts. The authors have presented perhaps the 
best general account of the coconut, with particular refer- 
ence to the increasing and new industrial uses of coconuts. 
(London: St. Catherine Press, 1914.) 
Boery, P.— 

Les plantes oleagineuses. The author gives an account of the 
oils obtained from coconut, olive, palm, peanut, castor bean, 
sesame, poppy, and other oil plants, particularly from the 
viewpoint of the technical utilization of these products. 
(Paris: Petite bibliotheque scientifique, 1888.) 
Brannt, W. T.— 

India Rubber, Gutta-percha, and Balata. The volume is es- 
sentially a treatise on the botany, cultivation, and impor- 
tance of these products, and deals with their industrial 
349 



350 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

treatment and uses. (Philadelphia: Henry, Carey, Baird 
& Co., 1900.) 

Brown, E., and Hunter, H. H. — 

Planting in Uganda. On the basis of practical experience and 
study of agricultural conditions in Uganda, the authors give 
general advice to planters in this region and discuss par- 
ticularly rubber, coffee, and cacao. (London: Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1913.) 

Brown, H. — 

Rubber: Its Sources, Cultivation, and Preparation. The va- 
rious trees and other plants which yield rubber are thor- 
oughly discussed in much detail. Particular attention is also 
given to an account of rubber latex and of the technical 
utilization of rubber. (London: J. Murray, 1914.) 

Cameron, J. — 

Firminger's Manual of Gardening for India. This volume 
contains much practical information on methods, especially 
adapted for gardening and fruit raising in India. (Cal- 
cutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 1904.) 

Capus, G., and Bois, D. — 

Les produits coloniaux. The volume treats in particular de- 
tail of timbers, rubber, dyes, fibers, perfumes, drugs, and 
animal industry, especially ivory and feathers. (Paris: 
A. Colin, 1912.) 

Chevalier, J. B. A. — 

Les Vegetaux utiles de I'Afrique tropicale franqaise; etudes 
scientifiques et agronomiqiies. A volume published in sec- 
tions as material was accumulated by the researches of the 
author. It deals quite exhaustively with all the important 
vegetable products of the French tropical colonies. (Paris: 
Author, 1905-1913.) 

Christy, C. — 

African Riibber Industry. This is the best available discus- 
sion of the importance of the African rubber tree Funtumia 
elastica. The volume contains a thorough account of the 
botany, cultivation, yield, and uses of this tree. (London: 
J. Bale Sons and Danielson, 191 1.) 

Dudgeon, G. C. — 

The Agricultural and Forest Products of British West Africa. 
This volume is arranged on a regional plan and contains 
summary accounts of agricultural conditions and important 



APPENDIX 351 

crops, such as cotton, other fiber plants, rubber, oil plants, 
etc., in the various regions of British West Africa. (Lon- 
don: J. Murray, 191 1.) 

Dybowski, J. — 

Traite pratique de cultures tropicales. In this volume special 
emphasis is laid on tropical climate and methods of propa- 
gation of vegetables and fruits. Many details of particular 
use to tropical planters are included. (Paris: A. Challamel, 
1902.) 

Fawcett, W. — 

The Banana: Its Cultivation, Distribution, and Commercial 
Uses. This book contains the most complete and authori- 
tative account of the banana in all of its relations. It is 
particularly useful to the student in a study of the botany 
of the banana in its various forms and species. (London: 
Duckworth & Co., 1913.) 

Foaden, G. P., and Fletcher, F. — 

Text-hook of Egyptian Agriculture. This two-volume trea- 
tise contains an account of the essential features of the 
agriculture of Egypt, with particular reference to soils, 
irrigation, cotton, and animal industry. (Cairo: National 
Printing Department, 1908-1910.) 

Freeman, W. G., and Chandler, S. E. — 

The World's Commercial Products. As indicated by the title, 
the authors have chosen to discuss in this form some of the 
chief products which enter into international commerce, 
including tropical products. Particular attention is given 
to sugar, coffee, tobacco, and oil plants. (Boston: Ginn & 
Co., 1907.) 

Van Gorkom, K. W. — 

Oost-Indische Cultures — edited by H. C. Prinsen-Geerligs. 
This is a large two-volume treatise on the important eco- 
nomic plants of Java and Sumatra. It is perhaps the most 
exhaustive and satisfactory account of the agricultural 
products of these islands. (Amsterdam: J. H. de Bussy, 

1913-) 
Haldane, R. C. — 

Subtropical Cidtivations and Climates. The author has 
brought together in this volume much information on tropi- 
cal climate, starch foods, vegetable oils, fibers, drugs, tans, 
and dyes. These subjects are treated from the economic 



352 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

viewpoint of the utilization of the different products. 
(Edinburgh: W. Blackwood & Sons, 1886.) 

Hanausek, E. — 

Erdmann-Koenig's Grundriss der allgemeinen Warenkunde. 
This large volume deals in an encyclopedic manner with 
the chief agricultural products which have especial impor- 
tance from an industrial viewpoint. (Leipzig: J. A. Barth, 
1906.) 

Heuze, G. — 

Les plantes alimentaires des pays chauds. This is a small 
handy volume dealing largely with the essentials concerned 
in the production of cereals, legumes, fruits, and starchy 
foods in tropical countries. It is written chiefly from the 
viewpoint of the general reader. (Paris: Maison rustique, 

1899.) 

Johnson, W, H. — 

The Cultivation and Preparation of Para Rubber. The author 
has presented a thorough and authoritative general account 
of the Para rubber tree, giving a detailed discussion of its 
distribution, method of planting, cultivation, and of methods 
of tapping and preparing the rubber. (London: C. Lock- 
wood & Son, 1904.) 

Jumelle, H. — 

Les cultures coloniales. The author presents in this volume 
a rather elaborate account of starch foods, fruits, legumes, 
beverages, and spices, with particular reference to the 
extent of the cultivation of these crops in the French 
tropical colonies. (Paris: J. B. Bailliere & Sons, 1913- 

1915-) 

Kenny, J. — 

Intensive Farming in India. In this book particular atten- 
tion is devoted to fertilizers and the cultivation of rice, 
cotton, wheat, sugar cane, tobacco, tea, coffee, and coco- 
nuts. A discussion of agricultural associations is also given. 
(Madras: Higginbotham & Co., 1912.) 

Lecomte, H. — 

Le Vanillier. All the matters concerned with the cultivation, 
harvesting, fermentation, and sale of vanilla are here dis- 
cussed in a thorough and authoritative manner with ref- 
erence to the needs of both the planter and buyer. (Paris: 
C. Naud, 1902.) 



APPENDIX 853 

Macmillan, H. F. — 

A Handbook of Tropical Gardening and Planting. A general 
account of soils, climate, insect pests, fungous diseases, 
methods of propagation and cultivation in Indian agri- 
culture, particularly fruits, vegetables, windbreaks, cover 
crops and ornamentals. (Colombo: Cave & Co., 1914.) 

Mukerji, N. G. — 

Handbook of Indian Agriculture. The author has brought 
together a large mass of information, especially useful for 
the native planter and farmer in the cultivation, marketing, 
and economic utilization of all important crops in India. 
(Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 1907.) 

Nicholls, H. A. A.— 

A Text-book of Tropical Agriculture. This is a small volume 
dealing in a general way with the more important tropical 
crops of international commerce. (London: Macmillan 
& Co., 1892.) 

Olsson-Seffer, P. — 

La agricoltura en varios paises tropicales y subtropicales. A 
two-volume treatise containing rather extensive accounts of 
important tropical crops with special reference to Mexico 
and Central America. (Mexico: Secretaria de Fomento, 
1910.) 

Reid, W. M.— 

The Culture and Manufacture of Indigo. A thorough gen- 
eral account of the culture and utilization of indigo written 
at the time when this industry was of much greater impor- 
tance than at present. (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 
1887.) 

Ridley, H. N.— 

Spices. In this volume the author has given the best avail- 
able account of all the important tropical spices, including 
their botanical relationships, nature, culture, uses, and com- 
mercial importance. (London: Macmillan & Co., ^912.) 

Riviere, C, and Lecq, H. — 

Traite pratique d'agriculture pour le Nord de VAfrique. The 
volume is devoted to the agriculture of northern Africa. It 
deals most exhaustively with soil, farm organization, forage 
plants, timbers, grapes, fibers, olives, and animal industry. 
The material is presented largely from the point of view 
of the tropical farmer. (Paris: A. Challamel, 1914.) 



354 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Sagot, P. — 

Manuel pratique de cultures tropicales. In this volume the 
author has chosen for special emphasis a discussion of 
starch plants, cereals, forage plants, fruits, and animal in- 
dustry, particularly camels and elephants. (Paris: A. 
Challamel, 1893-1897.) 

Savariau, N. — 

L'Agriculture an Dahomey. The volume treats particularly 
of starch foods, fruits, oil palm, fibers, and animal indus- 
try in Dahomey, particularly from the viewpoint of the 
prospective settler. (Paris: A, Challamel, 1906.) 

Semler, H. — 

Die tropische Agrikultur. A four-volume cyclopedia of tropi- 
cal agriculture, dealing in a general way with the crops 
of all tropical countries. (Wismar: Hinstorff Hofbuch- 
handlung, 1886, 4 volumes.) 

Simmonds, P. L. — 

Tropical Agriculture. A general descriptive account of the 
culture, preparation and use, and the commerce in more 
important tropical crops. The volume is written largely 
from the viewpoint of the general reader. (London: Spon, 
1889.) 

Torrey, J., and Manders, A. Staines. — 

The Rubber Industry. This book contains the most impor- 
tant literary contributions to the rubber industry made at the 
London International Rubber Exhibition in 191 1. Particu- 
lar stress is laid upon the chemistry and utilization of rub- 
ber and upon rubber planting and the organization of plan- 
tations. (London: International Rubber Exhibition, 1911.) 

Trabut, L., and Mares, R.— 

L'Algeric Agricole en 1906. In this book the authors have 
discussed rather elaborately the cultivation and statistics 
of tobacco, fiber plants, garden crops, fruits, ornamentals, 
and animal industry in Algeria, particularly from the view- 
point of the prospective buyer of tropical products. (Al- 
giers: Imprimerie algerienne, 1906.) 

Wallace, R.— 

Indian Agriculture. The author considered chiefly animal 
industry, native farm methods, rice, millets, forestry, and 
incidentally other less important agricultural crops. (Edin- 
burgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1888.) 



APPENDIX 355 

Watt, G.— 

Dictionary of the Economic Plants of India. An encyclopedic 
storehouse of information on the botany, importance, culti- 
vation, and technical uses of all kinds of agricultural crops 
in India. (Calcutta: Govt. Printing Office, 1889-1896.) 
The Commercial Products of India. A condensed and revised 
form in one volume of the material contained in the dic- 
tionary of economic plants of India. (London: John Mur- 
ray, 1908.) 

de Wildeman, E. — 

Les plantes tropicales de grande culture. The author se- 
lected for thorough discussion coffee, cacao, kola nuts, 
vanilla, and bananas, giving in each case an account of 
cultural methods and an indication of the economic impor- 
tance of the crop. (Brussels: A. Cartaigne, 1908.) 

Willis, J. C.— 

Agriculture in the Tropics. This is a small handbook deal- 
ing chiefly with the peculiar agricultural conditions of India 
and the method of organizing agricultural operations on a 
large scale, with brief notes on some of the more important 
crops. (Cambridge: University Press, 1914.) 

Woodrow, G. M. — 

Gardening in the Tropics. In this volume the garden crops, 
fruits, ornamentals, and incidentally other economic crops 
are treated from the viewpoint of the tropical farmer. The 
first edition considered only the conditions in India, but the 
revised edition is broadened in its point of view. (Paisley: 
A. Gardner, 1910.) 

PERIODICALS RELATING TO TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

As will appear from the following list of periodicals, which 
deal for the most part exclusively with tropical agriculture, the 
number of such publications is quite large. It should be remem- 
bered that this list contains by no means all of such periodicals, but 
only those which may be of particular interest to students of the 
general subject. In addition to the periodicals listed below, one 
must remember that there are large numbers of journals in which 
tropical products are discussed along with other farm products. 
Such journals would include periodicals on paints, oils, perfumes, 
drugs, tans, dyes, fibers, etc. 



356 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Agricultural Bulletin of the Federated Malay States. Singapore. 
Monthly. 

L'Agricoltura Coloniale. Florence, Italy. Bi-monthly. 

Agricultural Journal of British East Africa. Nairobi and Mom- 
basa. Quarterly. 

Agricultural Journal of Egypt. Cairo. Irregular. 

Agricultural Journal of India. Calcutta. Quarterly. 

Agricultural Journal of the Companhia de Mogambique. Beira, 
Mozambique. Quarterly. 

Agricultural Ledger. Calcutta. Irregular. 

Agricultural News. Barbados. Semi-monthly. 

L' Agriculture Pratique des Pays Chauds. Paris. Bi-monthly. 

Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, Bulletin. Calcutta. Ir- 
regular. 

Agricultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago. Society paper. 
Irregular. 

Agronomia. Boletin de la Estacion Agronomica de Puerto Ber- 
toni. Puerto Bertoni, Paraguay. Monthly. 

Annales du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg. Batavia and Leide, 
Java. Irregular. 

Annual Report of the Agricultural Department. Sierra Leone. 

Annual Report upon the Agricultural Department. Southern 
Nigeria. 

Annual Report of the Agricultural Experimental Stations in 
Assam. Shillong. 

Annual Report of Agricultural Stations in Charge of the Deputy 
Director of Agriculture, Bengal. Calcutta. 

Annual Report on the Botanical, Forestry and Scientific Depart- 
ment, Uganda Protectorate. Entebbe. 

Annual Report of the Camel Specialist {Punjab). Lahore, India. 

Annual Report of the Cuban National Horticultural Society. 
Havana. 

Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, Bombay Presi- 
dency. Bombay. 

Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture. Kingston, 
Jamaica. 

Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, Colony of 
Mauritius. 

Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, Uganda Pro- 
tectorate. Entebbe. 



APPENDIX 357 

Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine 
Islands. Manila. 

Annual Report on the Experimental Farms in the Bombay Presi- 
dency. Bombay. 

Annual Progress Report on Forest Administration of the Lower 
Provinces of Bengal. Calcutta. 

Annual Report of the Imperial Department of Agricidtiire {India). 
Calcutta. 

Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Royal Botamc Gar- 
dens. Trinidad. 

Annuaire Statistique de I'Egypte. Cairo. 

Archief voor de Suiker-Industrie in Nederlandsch-Indie. Ir- 
regular. 

Barbados Department of Agriculture. Report of the Sugar-Cane 
Experiments. Barbados. Irregular. 

Board of Commissioners of Agricidture and Forestry, Territory 
of Hawaii. Biennial Report. Honolulu. 

Boletin de Agricultura. San Salvador. Irregular. 

Boletim da Agricultura. Sao Paulo, Brazil. Irregular. 

Boletim da Directoria da Agricultura, Viacao, Industria e Obras 
Publicas do Estado da Bahia. Bahia, Brazil. Monthly. 

Boletin de la Direccion Fomento. Lima, Peru. Irregular. 

Boletin de la Direccion General de Agricultura. Mexico City. 
Monthly. 

Boletim do Instituto Agronomico. Sao Paulo. Irregular. 

Boletin del Ministerio de Fomento. Caracas, Venezuela. Ir- 
regular. 

Boletin Oficial de la Secretaria de Agricultura, Industria y Co- 
mercio. Habana, Cuba. Monthly. 

Bulletin Agricole de VAlgerie, Tunisie, Maroc. Algiers. Semi- 
monthly. 

Bulletin de V Association Cotonniere Coloniale. Paris. Irregular. 

Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture. Kingston, Jamaica. 
Irregular. 

Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, Trinidad. Trinidad. 
Irregular. 

Bulletin Economique de I'Indochine. Ha-Noi, Indo-China. Ir- 
regular. 

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (at South Kensington). Lon- 
don. Quarterly. 



358 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Bulletin de I'Institiit Botaniqiie de Buitensorg. 'S Lands Plan- 
tentuin. Buitenzorg, Java. Irregular. 

Bulletin van het Kolonial Museum te Haarlem. Amsterdam. Ir- 
regular. 

Bulletin de I'OfUce Colonial. Melun, France. Monthly. 

Bulletin Officiel de I'Etat Independant du Congo. Brussels. Ir- 
regular. 

Bulletin of the Pan-American Union. Washington, D. C. Monthly. 

Bulletin de la Societe d' Horticulture de Tunisie. Tunis. Monthly. 

Bulletin de la Station de Recherches Forestibres du Nord de 
I'Afrique. Algiers. Irregular. 

Cairo Scientific Journal. Alexandria. Monthly. 

Cuba Agricola. Revista Mensual Organo de los Agricultores. 
Habana. Monthly. 

The Cuba Magazine. Habana. Monthly. 

Cuba Review. New York City. Monthly. 

Cyprus Journal. Nicosia, Cyprus. Monthly. 

Department of Agriculture, Bengal. Quarterly Journal. 

Department of Agriculture, Bombay. Annual Reports. 

Department of Agriculture, British East Africa. Annual Report. 
London. 

Department of Agriculture. Federated Malay States Bulletin. 
Kuala Lumpur, F.M.S. Irregular. 

Department of Agriculture, Fiji. Bulletin, Suva. Irregular. 

Department of Agriculture in India. Bulletin. Bombay. Ir- 
regular. 

Department of Agriculture. Mysore State Bulletin. Bangalore. 
Irregular. 

Department of Agriculture, Punjab. Bulletin. Lahore, Irregular. 

Department of Agriculture, Trinidad. Bulletin. Port-of-Spain. 
Irregular. 

Estacidn Experimental Agrondmica de Cuba. Boletin. Habana. 
Irregular. 

Florida Agriculturist. DeLand, Fla. Weekly. 

Florida Grower. Tampa, Fla. Weekly. 

La Hacienda. Buffalo, N. Y. Monthly. 

Hawaii Experiment Station Bulletin. Honolulu. Irregular. 

Hawaiian Sugar Planters^ Station. Bulletins. Honolulu. Ir- 
regular. 

Imperial Department of Agriculture in India. Bulletin. Cal- 
cutta. Irregular. 



APPENDIX 359 

Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies. Re- 
ports. Barbados. 
India Rubber World. New York City. Monthly. 
Indian Forest Memoirs. Calcutta. Irregular. 
Indian Tea Association. Pamphlets. Calcutta. Irregular. 
Jaarboek van het Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en 
Handel in Nederlandsch-Indie. Batavia. Irregular. 
Jaarverslag van het Proefstation voor de lava-Suikerindustrie. 

Soerabaia. Irregular. 
Journal d' Agriculture Tropicale. Paris. Monthly. 
Journal of the Board of Agriculture of British Guiana. Demerara. 

Quarterly. 
Journal of the Jamaica Agricultural Society. Kingston, Jamaica. 

Monthly. 
Journal of the Khedivial Agricultural Society and the School of 

Agriculture. Cairo, Egypt. Bi-monthly. 
Liverpool University. Institute of Commercial Research in the 

Tropics. Quarterly Journal. Liverpool and London. 
Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer. New Orleans, La. 

Weekly. 
Mededeelingen uitgaande van het Departement van Landbouw. 

Batavia, Java. Irregular. 
Mededeelingen van het Proefstation voor de Java-Suikerindustrie. 

Surabaya. Irregular. 
Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India. Calcutta. 

Irregular. 
Memoirs Scientifique publics par le Service de V Agriculture du 

Ministere des Colonies. Royaume de Belgique. Brussels. 

Irregular. 
Memoria presentada por el Director de Fomento. Lima, Peru. 

Irregular. 
Mogambique Department of Agriculture, Lourengo Marques, Mo- 

gambique. Bulletin. Lourenqo Marques. Irregular. 
Nyasaland Department of Agriculture, Annual Report. Zomba. 
Perfumery and Essential Oil Record. London. Monthly. 
Philippine Agriculturist and Forester. Los Banos, P. I. Monthly. 
Philippine Bureau of Agriculture. Bulletin. Department of the 

Interior. Manila. Irregular. 
Philippine Journal of Science. Manila. Irregular. 
Planting Opinion. Bangalore, India. Weekly. 
Porto Rico Experiment Station Bulletin. Mayaguez. Irregular. 



S60 TROPICAL AGRICULTURE 

Porto Rico Progress. San Juan, P. R. Weekly. 

Rapport Annual Station Agronomique, Mauritius. Mauritius. 

Rapport General de la Commission du Colon. Cairo, Egypt. Ir- 
regular. 

Revista de Agricultura. Santo Domingo, W. I. Monthly. 

Revista Industrial y Agricola de Tucumdn. Tucuraan, Argentina. 
Monthly. 

Revue des Cultures Coloniales. Paris. Semi-monthly. 

Rice Industry. Houston, Tex. Monthly. 

Report of the Agricultural Department, Assam. Shillong. 

Report of the Agricultural Department, Bengal. Calcutta. 

Report of the Agricultural Work, Barbados. Barbados. 

Report on the Aligarh Agricultural Station of the United Prov- 
inces of Agra and Oudh. Allahabad. 

Report on the Cawnpore Agricultural Station in the United Prov- 
inces. Allahabad, India. 

Report on the Experimental Work of the Sugar Experiment Sta- 
tion. Jamaica Board of Agriculture. Kingston, Jamaica. 

Report of the Forest Surveys in India. Calcutta. 

Spice Mill. New York City. Monthly. 

Sugar Journal and Tropical Cultivator. Mackay, Queensland, 
Monthly. 

Le Tabac. Paris. Monthly. 

Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. New York City. Monthly. 

Der Tropenpflanser. Berlin. Monthly. 

Tropical Agricidturist. Ceylon. Monthly. 

Tropical Life. London. Monthly. 

West Indian Bulletin. Barbados. Quarterly. 



INDEX 



Abaca, 173 
Abroma augusta, 184 
Abutilon incanutn, 181 
Acacia catechu, 223, 229 

decurrens, 230 

farnesiana, 257 

koa, 295 

Senegal, 211 ' 

Achras sapota, 136, 207 
Adansonia digitata, 189 
Adzuki bean, 310 
jiEgle marmelos, 137 
African rubber tree, 199 
Agathis loranthifolia, 211 
Agathophyllum aromaticum, 251 
Agave, 169 
Agricultural methods in Tropics, 

24-28 
Albizzia trees, 292 
Aleu rites, 264-268 
Alfalfa, 307 
Algaroba, 302 
Alligator pear, 112- 1 14 
Allspice, 240 
Almond, 138 
Almond oil, 279 
Alocasia, 155 
Aloes, 222 
Alpaca, 339 
Alpinia, 252 
Amatungula, 133 
Amomunt melegueta, 247 
Anacardium occidentale, 140 
Andaman redwood, 292 
Andropogon, 284 
Animals, affected by climate, 10, 11 

domestic, 322-343 



Annatto, 236 

Anona cherimolia, 128 

tnuricata, 128 

reticulata, 128 

squamosa, 128 
Apiculture, 345 
Arabic gum, 211 
Arack from coconuts, 62 
Aralia cordata, 154 
Areca nut, 225 
Argemone oil, 270 
Arrow poison, 227 
Arrowroot, 151 

Arsenite of soda for weeds, 27 
Artocarpus incisa, 157 

integrifolia, 158 

.nobilis, 158 
Asclepias curassavica, 178 
Ashantee pepper, 247 
Ass, African, 334 
Assam rubber tree, 201 
Astragalus gummifer, 212 
Attalea cohune, 283 

funifera, 182 
Averrhoa bilimbi, 137 

carambola, 136 
Avocado, 112-114 
Awa, 225 



Bael fruit, 137 

Bagasse, 53 

Balata, 206 

Balsamodendron myrrha, 258 

Balsams, 221 

Bamboo, 192 

Bambusa arundinacea, 193 



361 



INDEX 



Banana fiber, 175 
Banana figs, 91 
Banana flour, 91 
Bananas, 84-94 

composition of, 90 

profits from, 41 

statistics about, 88, 89 

varieties of, 87 
Bankul oil, 266 
Banteng, 332 
Baobab, 189 
Baphia nitida, 234 
Barwood, 234 
Bassia, 283 
Bay oil, 289 
Bear grass, 190 
Beef cattle, 326 
Bees, 345 
Belgaum oil, 266 
Ben oil, 279 
Benzoin, 258 
Bergamot, 103 
Bergamot oil, 259 
Beri-beri and rice diet, 146 
Bermuda grass, 315 
Bertholletia excelsa, 139 
Betel nut, 225 
Beverages, 64-81 

Bibliography of tropical agricul- 
ture, 349-355 
Bilimbi, 137 
Bingo-i mat rush, 187 
Bird pepper, 244 
Bixa orellana, 236 
Black sand, 17 
Black tea, 71 
Blackwood, 292 
Blumea halsamifera, 208 
Boehmeria nivea, 176 
Bombax malabaricum, 178 
Bonavist bean, 311 
Books on tropical agriculture, 349- 

355 
Borassus flabellifer, 182 
Borneo camphor, 308 



Bos bubalus, 330 

indicus, 2^7 
Boswellia serrata, 256 
Bowstring hemp, 179 
Brazil nut, 139 
Brazilwood, 233 
Breadfruit, 157 
Bromelia, 184 

Broussonetia papyrifera, 189 
Brucine, 219 
Buffalo, African, 331 

Indian, 330 
Bull's heart, 128 
Bulnesia sarmienti, 260 
Bursera, 289 
Bursera tomentosa, 212 
Buttons, vegetable ivory, 297 
Butyrospermum parkii, 282 

Cacao, 73-79 

beans, fermentation of, 77 
culture and varieties of, 74, 75 
statistics about, 79 

Csesalpinia, 233 

CcBsalpinia coriaria, 231 

Cajun fiber, 172 

Cajuput oil, 289 

Calabar bean, 222 

Calabacillo cacao, 75 

Calabash nutmeg, 251 

Calamus rotang, 192 

Calathea allouya, 153 

Calisaya bark, 215 

Calophyllum inophyllum, 212 

Calotropis gigantea, 178 

Camel, 327 

Camellia thea, 70 

Camphor, 208 

Camphor oil, 288 

Camwood, 234 

Cananga odorata, 255 

Canari oil, 279 

Canarium commune, 140 

Canavalia, 309 

Candellia wax, 213 



INDEX 



36^ 



Candlenut oil, 266 

Cane sugar, manufacture of, 51 

tops, burning of, 21, 22 
Canna edulis, 153 
Cannabis saliva, 220 
Caoutchouc, 194 
Cape gooseberry, 131 
Caper, 245 
Capri fig, III 
Capsicum peppers, 243 
Capparis spinosa, 245 
Carabao, 330 
Caraguata fiber, 184 
Carambola, 136 
Carapa oil, 282 
Caravonica cotton, 167 
Cardamom oil, 288 
Cardamoms, 241 
Carica candamarcensis, 119 

erythrocarpa, 119 

papaya, 118 

peltata, 118 

quercifolia, 118 
Carissa grandiflora, 133 
Carludovica palmata, 191 
Carmine from cochineal, 348 
Carnauba wax, 213 
Carob bean, 305 
Carthamus tinctorius, 237 
Caryota ureus, 182 
Cascarilla oil, 288 
Cashew nut, 140 
Cassaree, 150 
Cassava, 149 
Cassia, 224 
Cassia bark, 241 
Cassie, 257 
Castilloa elastica, 200 
Castor oil, 277 
Catechu, 223, 229 
Cattle, 326 
Cayenne pepper, 244 
Ceara rubber, 198 
Cedrelaodorata, 295 
Central American rubber tree, 200 



Centrifugals, 52 

Ceratonia siliqua, 305 

Ceriman, 135 

Ceylon crepe rubber, 197 

Chamcerops humilis, 190 

Champaca oil, 260 

Chaulmoogra oil, 281 

Chayote, 158 

Chenopodium quinoa, 148 

Cherimoyer, 128 

Chewing gum, 207 

Chick pea, 306 

Chicle, 207 

Chilies, 243 

China grass (see Ramie) 

Chinawood oil, 264 

Chinese cassia bark, 242 

Chinese mat rush, 186 

Chinese pigs, 335 

Chinese vegetable tallow, 281 

Chlorosis of pineapples, 19 

Chocolate, 78, 79 

Chrysophyllum cainito, 134 

Cibotium, 192, 319 

Cinnamomum camphora, 208 

Cinnamon, 242 

Cinnamon oil, 286 

Cinchona, 214 

Citron, 103 

Citronella grass oil, 284 

Citrus aurantifolia, 102 

aurantium, 103 

bergamia, 103 

grandis, 102 

japonica, 103 

limonia, 102 

medica, 103 

nobilis, 104 

sinensis, 102 

trifoliata, 103 
Citrus fruit, sweating of, 106 
Citrus fruits, 101-106 
Clarification of cane juice, 52 
Clausena lansium, 133 
Climate, affected by forests, 5 



364! 



INDEX 



Climate, tropical, 1-15 

effect of, on animals, 10, 11 
on man, 11-15 
on plants, 7-10 
Clitandra, 201 
Clove nutmeg, 251 
Clove oil, 287 
Cloves, 248 
Cocaine, 216 

Cochineal production, 347 
Cocoa, 78, 79 
Cocoa butter, 78, 281 
Coconut butter, 60 
Coconut desiccated and shredded, 

61 
Coconut oil, 60 
Coconuts, 56-63 

fertilizers for, 59 

planting of, 58 

statistics about, 63 

varieties of, 57 

w^orld's production of, 57 
Co cos nucifera, 56 
Codeine, 218 
Coffea arabica, 64 

excelsa, 69 

lib erica, 64 

robusta, 64 

stenophylla, 69 
Coffee, 64-69 

culture of, 66 

leaf blight of, 65 

roasting of, 67 
Cohune oil, 283 
Coir, 61 

Coix lachryma, 147 
Cola acuminata, 80 
Cold storage, for avocado, 114 

of tropical fruits, 30 
Colocasia, 155 
Commelina nudiilora, 318 
Commerce in tropical products, 

29-34 
Cooking bananas, 91 
Cooperative associations, 39 



Copaiba balsam, 220 

Copal resin, 211 

Copernicia cerifera, 213 

Copra, 60 

Coral sand soils, 19 

Corchorus, 169 

Cordyline terminalis, 159 

Coriander, 245 

Cork, 297 

Corkwood, 297 

Corozo, 297 

Cotton, 167-169 

Cottonseed oil, 271 

Cowpeas, 308 

Criollo cacao, 75 

Crocus sativus, 238 

Crops affected by climate, 7-10 

Crotalaria as cover crop, 26 

Crotalana juncea, 182 

saltiana, 310 
Croton eleutheria, 288 
Croton oil, 227 

Cryptostegia grandiAora, 178, 201 
Cuba bast, 181 
Cubeb oil, 288 
Cubebs, 219 

Cultivation of tropical soils, 24-28 
Cummin, 245 
Cummin oil, 288 
Curcuma, 251, 252 
Curry powder, 245 
Custard apples, 128 
Cutch, 229 
Cycas circinalis, 149 
Cyperus papyrus, 186 

tegetiformis, 186 

Dairying, 323 
Dammar resin, 211 
Dammara australis, 211 
Dasheens, 155 
Date palm, 109-111 
Deccan hemp, 180 
Devil's cotton, 184 
Dioscorea alata, 153 



INDEX 



365 



Dioscorea glohosa, 153 

sativOj 153 
Diospyros kaki, 138 
Dipterocarpacese, 291 
Dipterocarpns turbinatus, 286 
Dipteryx odor at a, 256 
Diseases of plants, 28 

in Tropics, ir, 12 
Divi-divi pods, 231 
Domestic animals, 322-343 
Drainage in Tropics, 20 
Dromedary, 22)7 
Drugs, 214-227 
Drying oils, 264 
Dryobalanops aromatica, 208 
Ducks, 341 
Durian, 134 
Dyera costulata, 206 
Dyes and tans, 228-238 
Dyestuflfs, artificial, 228 
Dynamite, use in loosening soils, 
20 

Eboc oil, 266 

Ebony, 292 

Economic conditions in Tropics, 

^'~ 35-42 
Edgeworthia papyrifera, 188 
Egyptian cotton, 167 
Elceis guineensis, 280 
Elephants, 339 
Elettaria cardamomum, 241 
Eleusine caracana, 147 
Enfleurage, 258 
Eng tree, 291 
Eriobotrya japonica, 129 
Eriodendron anfractuosum, 177 
Erosion by wind, 6 
Erythroxylon coif6,, 216 
Eserine, 222 
Esparto grass, 185 
Essential oils, 284-289 
Eucalyptus as windbreak, 26 
Eucalyptus oil, 285 
Eucalyptus wood, 294 



Eugenia caryophyllata, 248 

jamb OS, 131 

malaccensis, 130 

micheli, 131 
Euphorbia antisyphilitica, 213 

calyculata, 227 

lorifolia, 208 
Evaporation of cane juice, 52 
Exercise in Tropics, 13, 14 
Exogonium purga, 223 

Fats, vegetable, 280 
Fatsia papyrifera, 188 
Feijoa, 122 
Ferns as forage, 318 
Fertilizers for bananas, 87 

for coconuts, 59 

for rice, 145 

for sugar cane, 47 
Fiber plants, 166-192 
Ficus carica, iii 

elastica, 201 
Fig, III, 112 
Flavorings, 239-254 
Flax, New Zealand, 179 
Floss, 177 

Foods in Tropics, 15 
Forage plants, 301-321 
Forastero cacao, 75 
Forests and rainfall, 6 
Fowls, 340 
Frangipani, 259 
Frankincense, 256 
Fruits, 82-138 

commercial importance of, 29 

temperate in Tropics, 83, 84 

tropical, cold storage for, 30 
Funtumia elastica, 199 
Furcrasa, 172 
Fustic wood, 232 

Galangal, 252 
Gambier, 229 
Gamboge, 232 
Ganpi, 188 



S66 



INDEX 



Garcinia cambogia, 232 

mangostana, 127 
Gaur, 331 
Gayal, 331 
Geranium oil, 260 
Ginger, 249 
Ginger oil, 287 
Goat milk, 325 
Goats, 336 

Golden shower tree, 225 
Goose production, 341 
Gossypium, 167 
Grains of paradise, 247 
Granadilla, 132 
Grapefruit, 102 
Grasses, 312-316 
Grazing, effect on forests, 6 
Green tea, 71 
Grevillea robtista, 24 
Grinding sugar cane, 51 
Guaiacum resin, 212 
Guar, 311 
Guarana, 81 
Guava, 121 
Guayule, 202 
Guinea fowl, 341 
Guinea grass, 313 
Guizotia oleifera, 270 
Gum arabic, 211 

chewing, 207 
Gum tragacanth, 212 
Gums and resins, 211 
Gur, 55 

Gurjun balsam, 286 
Gutta-percha, 205 
Gynocardia oil, 269 

Habana, healthfulness of, 12 
Half-breeds in Tropics, 38 
Hashish, 220 

Hematoxylon campechianum, 231 
Hemp, bowstring, 179 

Deccan, 180 

Indian, 220 

Manila, 173 



Hemp, Mauritius, ^^2 

sunn, 182 
Hemp-seed oil, 269 
Henequen, 169 
Henna, 235 

Hevea brasiliensis, 197 
Hibiscus fibers, 180 

sabdariffa, 125 
Hogs, 334 

Homesteads in Hawaii, 37 
Honohono, 318 
Horses, 332 

Humidity in Tropics, 2 
Humus in tropical soils, 21, 22 
Hydnocarpus oil, 281 
Hygiene in Tropics, 11-15 
Hymencea courbaril, 211 

Ilex Paraguay ensis, 80 

Illicium verutn, 289 

Iliipe oil, 284 

Imports, tropical in United States, 

22 
Indian hemp, 220 
Indigo, 234 
Insects in Tropics, 27 
Ipecac plant, 219 
Iron content in soils, 17 
Ironwood as windbreak, 26 
Istle fiber, 172 
Ivory, vegetable, 297 

Jaborandi, 227 

Jack bean, 309 

Jackfruit, 158 

Jaggery, 55 

Jaggery from coconuts, 62 

Jalap, 223 

Jamaica ginger, 249 

Japan wax, 283 

Japanese wood oil tree, 265 

Jatropha cure as, 227 

Jelutong, 206 

Jippa-jappa hats, 191 

Job's tears, 147 



INDEX 



367 



Journals of tropical agriculture, 

355-360 
Jujube, 135 
Juncus effusus, 187 
Jute, 169 

Kahoolawe Island, S 
Kapok, 177 
Kapok oil, 274 
Karri, 294 
Kauri copal, 211 
Kauri pine, 293 
Kava-kava, 225 
Kekune oil, 266 
King wood, 292 
Klu, 257 
Koa, 295 

Kokune butter, 283 
Kola nuts, 80 
Kona winds, 3 
Kudzu bean, 310 
Kukui oil, 267 
Kulthi, 311 
Kumquat, 103 

Lablab bean, 311 
Labor in Tropics, 36 
Lace bark tree, 191 
Lagetta lintearia, 191 
Lanai Island, 5 
Landlordism in Tropics, 35 
Landolphia, 201 
Laterite soils, 17 
Latex, coagulation of, 195 

properties of, 195 

systems of, 194 
Lauhala mats, 190 
Lava, changes in, 22 
Lava soils, 16 
Lawsonia alba, 235 
Leaching of soils, 16 
Legumes, 301-312 
Lemon, 102 
Lemon grass oil, 284 
Lemon oil, 287 



Leopoldinia piassaba, 182 

Lignaloe oil, 289 

Lignum vitae, 293 

Lime, 102 

Lime oil, 287 

Limus, 159 

Litchi, 124 

Literature of tropical agriculture, 

349-360 
Live stock in Tropics, 322-343 
Llama, 339 
Lleren, 153 
Logwood, 231 
Long pepper, 247 
Longan, 125 
Loquat, 129 
Lotus, 158 

Loxopterygitim lorentsii, 230 
Luffa (Bgyptiaca, 192 
Lunar rainbows, 7 

Macadamia ternifolia, 141 

Mace, 250 

Mace butter, 282 

Madura tinctoria, 232 

Madder, 236 

Maguey fiber, 172 

Majagua as windbreak, 25 

Majagua fiber, 181 

Mahoe fiber, 181 

Mahogany, 293 

Malay apple, 130 

Mamara cotton, 167 

Mammee apple, 132 

Man affected by tropical climate, 

11-15 
Mancono wood, 293 
Mandarin oranges, 103 
Manganese, effect on pineapples, 

19 

in soils, 18 
Mangifera indica, 114 
Mango, 114-118 
Mango anthracnose, 117 
Mangosteen, 127 



368 



INDEX 



Mangosteen oil, 283 
Mangrove, 229 
Manitoba rubber, 198 
Manihot aipi, 150 

glasiovii, 198 
Manihot oil, 270 
Manihot rubber, 198 
Manihot utilissima, 150 
Manila hemp, 173 
Manioc, 149 

Maranta arundinacea, 151 
Massecuite, 52 
Mastic resin, 212 
Mat rush, Chinese, 186 
Mate, 80 

Mauritius hemp, 172 
Melaleuca cajupnti, 289 
Mesquite, 302 

Metrosideros polymorpha, 296 
Metroxylon rumphii, 149 
Michelia champaca, 260 
Milk from buffaloes, 324 

from zebu, 325 

production of, in Tropics, 11 

yield of, from cows, 324 
Milkweed fibers, 178 
Millets, 147 
Mimusops balata, 206 
Mitsumata, 188 
Molasses, 52 

Monodora myristica, 251 
Monsoons, 3 
Monstera deliciosa, 135 
Moringa pterygosperma, 279 
Morphine, 218 
Moth bean, 311 
Mowra fat, 283 
Mules, 332 
Mungo bean, 312 
Murraya kmiingii, 245 
Musa {see Bananas) 

has j 00, 17 s 

textilis, 173 
Musk mallow fiber, 180 
Myristica fragrans, 250 



Myroxylon pereirw, 221 
Myrrh, 258 

Nandu feathers, 343 
Natal plum, 133 
Natal red-top grass, 314 
Nelumbium speciosiim, i^S 
Nephelium lappaceum, 125 

lite hi, 124 

longana, 125 
Neroli oil, 258 
New Zealand flax, 179 
Ngai camphor, 208 
Nicotiana rustica, 164 

t aha cum, 164 
Niger seed oil, 270 
Nipa palm, 190 
Non-drying oils, 276 
Nut butter, 60 
Nutmeg, 250 
Nutmeg butter, 282 
Nuts, 138-141 
Nux vomica, 218 

O CO tea caudata, 289 
Ohelo berry, 137 
Ohia wood, 296 
Oil, bergamot, 259 

castor, 277 

champaca, 260 

champaca wood, 260 

China wood, 264 

clove, 287 

coconut, 60 

cottonseed, 271 

croton, 227 

geranium, 260 

Gynocardia, 269 

hemp-seed, 269 

kekune, 266 

kukui, 267 

Manihot, 270 

of neroli, 258 

olive, 276 

palm, 280 



INDEX 



369 



Oil, palmarosa, 260 

peanut, 278 

Perilla, 268 

petit-grain, 259 

poppy-seed, 270 

safflower, 269 

sesame, 275 

soy bean, 272 

Stillingia, 268 

tung, 264 
Oils, 263-289 
Okra fiber, 181 
Olea europwa, 107 
Olibanum, 256 
Olive, 106-109 

pickling of, 108 
Olive oil, 276 
Olona fiber, 184 
Opium, 217 

Opportunities in Tropics, 35-42 
Orange, Chinese, 103 

sour, 103 

sweet, 102 
Orange oil, 287 
Osage orange, 233 
Ostrich farming, 341 
Otaheite apple, 138 
Otto of rose, 261 



Palaquium gutta, 205 
Palm oil, 280 
Palmarosa oil, 260 
Palmetto palm, 190 
Palmyra palm, 182 
Panama hat plant, 191 
Pandanus, 189 
Papain, 120 

Papaver somniferum, 217 
Papaya, 118-121 
Paper mulberry, 189 
Papyrus, 186 
Para grass, 312 
Para rubber, 197 
Para seed oil, 270 



Paraguay tea, 80 

Parasites for control of insect 

pests, 28 
Parchment of coffee, 67 
Parthenium argentatiim, 202 
Paspalum conjugatum, 314 

dilatatum, 314 
PassiHora edulis, 132 

laurifolia, it,2 

quadrangularis, 132 
Passion fruit, 132 
Patchouli oil, 288 
Paiillinia sorhilis, 81 
Pea berry coffee, 68 
Peanut oil, 278 
Pelargonium capitatum, 260 
Pepper, black and white, 246 

capsicum, 243 
Perfumes, 255-262 
Perilla oil, 268 
Periodicals of tropical agriculture, 

355-360 
Pernambuco wood, 234 
Persea gratissima, 112 
Persimmon, Japanese, 138 
Peru balsam, 221 
Petit-grain oil, 259 
Phase olus semierectus, 312 
Phoenix dactylifera, 109 
Phormium tenax, 179 
Phy salts peruviana, 131 
Physic nut, 227 
Physostigma venenosum, 222 
Phytelaphus macrocarpa, 297 
Piassava fiber, 182 
Picrasma excelsa, 226 
Pigeon pea, 305 
Pigs, 334 
Pili nut, 140 
Pilocarpin, 227 
Pilocarpus jaborandi, 227 
Pifia cloth, 183 
Pineapple fiber, 183 
Pineapples, 94-101 
black rot of ^ 99 



370 



INDEX 



Pineapples, canning of, lOO 

cultivation of, 95 

in cold storage, 98 

juice of, 100 

profits from, 41 

ripening of, 97 

shipment of, 98 
Piper cubeba, 219 

clusii, 247 

lotigum, 247 

methysticum, 225 

nigrum, 246 
Pimenta acris, 289 
Pimento, 240 
Pimento oil, 288 
Pip turns gandichaudianus, 189 
Pistacia lentiscus, 212 

vera, 141 
Pistachio nut, 141 
Pita fiber, 172 
Plantain {see Bananas) 
Plant diseases in Tropics, 28 
Plantation rubber, 197 
Plants affected by climate, 7-10 
Plowing heavy soils, 21 
Plumeria, 259 

Pogostemon patchouli, 288 
Poha, 132 
Pomegranate, 123 
Pomelo, 102 
Pongam oil, 282 
Poppy-seed oil, 270 
Porto Rican pea, 305 
Potash in molasses, 52 

in volcanic cinder, 17 
Potatoes, sweet, 152 
Poultry, 340 

Precipitation in Tropics, 4 
Prickly pear, 317 
Profits in tropical agriculture, 40 
Prosopis jiiUHora, 302 
Prunus amygdalus, 139 
Psidium cattleianum, 122 

guajava, 121 
Psychotria ipecacuanha, 2ig 



Pulu, 191 

Punica granatum, 123 

Quassia, 226 
Quebracho, 230 
Queensland arrowroot, 153 
Queensland nut, 141 
Quinin, 214 
Quinoa, 148 

Races in Tropics, 35-42 

Raffia, 185 

Ragi, 147 

Rainbows, 7 

Rainfall in Tropics, 4, 5 

Rainy seasons, 4 

Rambutan, 12" 

Ramie, 176 

Rape-seed oil, 276 

Raphia ruifla, 185 

Raphionacme utilis, 201 

Rattan, 192 

Rattoons, 46 

Ravensara nuts, 251 

Red pepper, 244 

Refrigeration of tropical fruits, 30 

Resins and gums, 211 

Rhea feathers, 343 

Rhizophora, 229 

Rhodes grass, 313 

Rhus cotinus, 233 

succedanea, 283 
Rice, 143-147 
Rice oil, 278 
Rice paper plant, 188 
Rice straw, 188 
Root rubbers, 201 
Rose, otto of, 261 
Rose apple, 131 
Roselle, 125 
Roselle fiber, 181 
Rosewood, 292 
Rubber, 193-204 

artificial, 196 
Rubber vines, 201 



INDEX 



371 



Rubia tinctorum, 236 
Rushes for matting, 186, 187 

Saccharum oMcinarum, 43 

Sachet powder, 258 

Safflower, 237 

Safiflower oil, 269 

Saffron, 238 

Sago, 149 

Sal tree, 291 

Sandalwood, 286, 294 

Sandalwood oil, 285 

Sandalwood pony, 332 

Sanitation in Tropics, 11-15 

Sansevieria, 179 

Sapodilla, 136 

Sappanwood, 234 

Sarsaparilla, 223 

Satinwood, 295 

Schleichera trijuga, 346 

Screw pine, 189 

Sea Island cotton, 167 

Seaweed, 159 

Sechium edule, 158 

Semi-drying oils, 271 

Senna, 224 

Sesame oil, 275 

Settlers, opportunities in Tropics, 

36 
Shaddock, 102 
Shade crops, 24 
Shading young plants, 24 
Shea butter, 282 
Sheep, 335 

Shellac production, 346 
Shorea rohusta, 291 
Silk cotton, 177 
Silk grass, 184 
Silk production, 344 
Silky oak, 24 
Silos in Tropics, 320 
Silver skin of coffee, 67 
Sisal, 169-173 
Smilax, 223 
Smoke tree, 233 



Smyrna fig, iii 

Social conditions in Tropics, 35-42 

Soils, importance of texture, 23 

in Tropics, 16-23 
Sour sop, 128 
Soy bean, 306 
Soy meal, 273 
Soy milk, 273 
Soy oil, 2^2 
Soya sauce, 274 
Spices, 239-254 
Spondias dulcis, 138 
Sponge cucumber, 192 
Spraying to kill weeds, 27 
Squill, 224 
Star anise oil, 289 
Star apple, 134 
Starch from cassava, 151 
Starchy foods, 142 
Steam plows, 22, 23 
Sterculia oil, 279 
Stillingia oil, 268 
Stillingia sehifera, 281 
Stipa tenacissima, 185 
Strophanthus, 227 
Strychnin, 219 
Strychnos, 218 
Styrax benzoin, 258 
Sudan grass, 316 
Sugar cane, 43-55 

burning of, 21, 22 

composition of, 45 

fertilizers for, 47 

for silage, 320 

harvesting of, 50 

manufacture of, 51 

mills for, 51 

payment for, 54 

planting of, 49 

plowing for, 49 

profit from, 40 

statistics about, 53, 54 

trash as feed, 319 

varieties of, 43 

water requirements for, 46 



372 



INDEX 



Sunn hemp, 182 
Surinam cherry, 131 
Sweet potatoes, 152 
Sweet sop, 128 
Swietcnia mahogani, 293 
Swine, 334 
Sword bean, 309 

Tacamahaca resin, 212 

Tacca, 152 

Tachardia lacca, 346 

Tamarind, 124 

Tampico fiber, 172 

Tangerines, 104 

Taniers, 155 

Tans and dyes, 228-238 

Tapa, 189 

Tapioca, 151 

Tapping rubber trees, 196 

Taraktogenos kurzii, 281 

Taro, 155 

Tea, 70-73 

fermentation of, 71 

grades and trade names of, yi, 
72 

statistics about, 70, 71 
Tea oil, 279 
Teakwood, 296 

Temperature of Tropics, 2, 3 
Terra Japonica, 229 
Theobroma cacao, 74 

pentagona, 75 
Thespesia poptilnia, 181 
Thunderstorms in Tropics, 4 
Ti as a food plant, 159 
Timbers, 290-300 
Titanium in soils, 19 
Tobacco, 160-165 

curing of, 162 

grading of, 165 
Toddy from coconuts, 62 
Tolu balsam, 221 
Tonka bean, 256 
Touchardia latifolia, 184 
Trade in tropical products, 29-34 



Trade winds, 3 

Tragacanth, gum, 212 

Tree ferns, 318 

Tricholccna rosea, 314 

Tronadora fiber, 181 

Tropical climate, 1-15 

Tropical foods, 15 

Tropical imports in United States, 

32 
Tropical policy for United States, 

42 
Tropical products, importance of, 

29-34 
Tropical soils, 16-23 
Tropics and white farmers, 37 

area of, 33 

areas of, in crops, 34 

defined, 2 

development of, 33 

economic conditions in, 35-42 

need for agricultural experts in, 

39 
opportunities in, 35-42 
social conditions in, 35-42 

Tung oil, 264 

Tunis grass, 316 

Turkeys, 341 

Turmeric, 251 

Udo, 154 

Uncaria gamhir, 223, 229 

Urginia scilla, 224 

Vaccinium reticulatum, 137 
Vacuum pans, 52 
Vanilla, 252-254 
Vanillin, artificial, 254 - 
Vanillon, 254 
Vegetable ivory, 297 
Vegetaline, 60 
Velvet bean, 307 
Vetlver, 261 
Violet wood, 292 
Volcanic cinder, 17 



INDEX 



373 



Volcanic soils, i6 
Vulcanization of rubber, 193 

Wampi, 133 
Water grass, 314 
Water lemon, 132 
Wattle bark, 230 
Wax, 213 

Weeds, destruction of, by chemi- 
cals, 27 
West Indian cedar, 295 
White man as tropical farmer, 2>7 
Wi apple, 138 
Wikstrcemta canescens, 188 
Windbreaks, 25 
Wind erosion, 6 
Winds in Tropics, 3 
Wine palm, 182 
Winged bean, 311 



Wood oil tree, 264 
Woods, 290-300 

Xanthosoma, 155 
Xanthostemon, 293 

Yam, 153 
Yautias, 155 
Ylang-ylang, 255 
Yucca filamentosa, 190 

Zapupe, 172 
Zebra, 334 
Zebroids, 334 
Zebu, 327 
Zedoary, 252 
Zingiber officinale, 249 
Zisyphus jujuha, 135 
vulgaris, 136 



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